Format: Paper presentations with discussion
Convenors:
Koyu Rajan, Dept of History, Government Victoria College, Palakkad, Kerala, India, rajanpkd@rediffmail.com
Prof. Dhan Bahadur Kunwar, Former Chairman and current member, Nepal National Ethnographic Museum, Bhirkutimandap, Kathmandu, Nepal, drdbkunwar@gmail.com
Religious art has played a prominent position in Asian societies. The pioneering European scholars, including Christian missionaries, had been less sympathetic towards Asian religious art, though they had contributed heavily to the unmasking of aspects connected to it. Buddhist temples, monasteries and icons in Asia have been among the lasting legacies of humanity. Buddhist art had a universality in Asia as Buddhism had risen into prominence as an Asian religion. By the time Buddhism left India it had become a religion wedded to the worship of icons. Buddhism had been a powerful religious force in central Asia, south Asia, south East Asia and East Asia, and continues to enjoy state patronage in countries like Thailand. Although Buddhism had declined in India in the early medieval period, it became a vital force in other countries, including Japan, Tibet, Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand etc. The spread of Buddhist religious art from India to other countries took place in different phases and through different channels. Buddhist religious art in Asia, like that of Hinduism, had followed prescriptions contained in the texts composed in India. Texts written in Pali and Sanskrit were translated into languages such as Chinese by the early centuries of the common era. Both Hinayanism and Mahayanism had influenced the religious traditions of Asia. Buddha and Bodhisattvas appear for the first time in the Kushan period. Over time, Buddhism absorbed new features under the influence of local cults in various countries. Saktaic and Tantric influences were an important force in changing the character of Asian Buddhist art. Buddhist frescoes, and icons in terracotta, wood, stone, and bronze continue to inspire connoisseurs of art. Many new elements, including belief in the Dhyani Buddhas of Vajrayana Buddhism, had impacted Buddhist religiosity by the 10th century. Buddhist art and architecture had attained so much diversity in countries outside India. The stupa’s transformation in Japan is a case in point. Papers on the spread of Buddhist icons in Asia, influences from various countries, local cults and Buddhist icons, influence of Saktaic-Tantric-Shamanistic elements etc can be contributed to this session.
Papers:
Buddhist Symbols: An Archaeological Investigation (5th-4th Millenium B.C To Kushan Period)
Diksha Gupta, Research Scholar, Dept Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Prof. Sujata Gautam, Dept Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
A symbol is a visual, physical, or conceptual representation that conveys meaning, ideas, or values beyond its literal form. Symbols are widely used to communicate abstract concepts, beliefs, or cultural heritage. In Buddhist art, the teachings of the Buddha and significant events from his life are primarily represented through symbols, which hold great significance as they embody the essence of his philosophy and serve as reminders of the path to enlightenment. For example, the Peepal tree symbolises enlightenment as Sukiti (Siddhartha) meditated beneath it to awaken. The Dharma Wheel represents the Buddha’s teachings and the Eightfold Path, while the Swastika signifies auspiciousness, eternity, and life’s cyclical nature. These symbols, deeply rooted in Buddhist philosophy, serve as tools for meditation, reminders of the Buddha’s teachings, and expressions of spiritual aspirations. In this research paper we explore the origins and primitivity of these symbols from the dawn of civilisation, tracing their cultural continuity through subsequent phases. The study is primarily based on archaeological findings retrieved from excavations and explorations dating from the 5th–4th millennium BCE up to the Kushan period.
The Aesthetic Journey: Exploring Buddhist Art Through Sacred Texts
Vivek Kumar Yadav, Dept Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Buddhist art, with its profound symbolism and intricate iconography, serves as a visual representation of the rich philosophical traditions and spiritual teachings embedded in Buddhism. This article delves into the evolution of Buddhist art within the Indian subcontinent, drawing insights from sacred texts to illuminate its multifaceted dimensions. Tracing its origins to the early centuries following the Buddha’s life, we explore how Indian artisans interpreted and embodied Buddhist principles through various art forms, from the serene statues of Sarnath to the elegant stupas of Sanchi. Key Buddhist scriptures, such as the Pali Canon, Jatakas, and Mahayana Sutras, provide a textual foundation for understanding the aesthetic and symbolic significance of these artworks. The lotus, Dharmachakra, and Bodhi tree, recurrent motifs in Indian Buddhist art, are examined through their textual mentions and artistic renditions. By examining the regional adaptations and stylistic evolutions within India, we also highlight the cultural exchanges and local influences that shaped Buddhist art. Ancient Buddhist literature continues to inspire and shape India’s rich artistic and spiritual heritage.
Emergence of the Buddhist Image Cult: Recovering the Role of Bhikkhunīs
Rev. Kaudagammana Rathanasara Thero, Research Scholar, Dept of Humanistic Studies, IIT (BHU) Varanasi, India
Dr Vinita Chandra, Associate Professor, Dept of Humanistic Studies, IIT (BHU) Varanasi, India
The Buddhist image cult that emerged during the Kuṣāṇa period represents a transformative milestone in Buddhist art and devotional practices. While scholars like Gregory Schopen and Ananda Coomaraswamy have emphasised the emergence of image cult, the contribution of bhikkhunīs (Buddhist nuns) remains overlooked or treated only peripherally. The present study demonstrates the bhikkhunīs’ active role in shaping early Buddhist iconography, using inscriptions from Buddhist sites, such as Sārnāth, Kauśāmbī, and Mathurā. For instance, Buddhamitrā, established a standing Bodhisattva image at Kauśāmbī and also, she collaborated with the monk Bala to create a standing Bodhisattva image at Sārnāth and thus played a formative role in the emergence of the cult. This legacy was carried on by bhikkhunīs such as Buddhadāsī, Dhanavatī and Buddhadevā, who established Buddha and Bodhisattva images at Mathurā. These examples illustrate bhikkhunīs’ contributions to integrating image worship into Buddhist devotional and monastic life, thereby challenging the conventional male-centric narrative of Buddhist history. This study employs a multidisciplinary approach, incorporating epigraphic analysis, art historical perspectives, approaches to women’s history, and approaches to women and religion; to recover women’s role in this transformation through an examination of the epigraphic records of the period.
Visualising the Divine: The Evolution of Buddhist Art from Aniconism to Iconic Forms
Pratishtha Mukherjee, Rishihood University, Sonipat Haryana, India
Buddhist art is the artistic practices that are influenced by Buddhism and Buddha is and has been the most celebrated and significant deity in the execution of artistic depictions. Buddha was not always depicted in the form which we see today, the depiction went through several stages of development. In the later developmental stages several influences were recognised in the art form, such as Gandhara, Mathura and Amravati, which became distinct schools of art. The present paper examines the evolution of Buddhist art, transitioning from aniconic depictions of the Buddha’s life and teachings to iconic representations. The analysis of the archaeological evidence, inscriptions, and stylistic transitions will enable understanding of the religious, cultural, and sociopolitical factors influencing this transformation. For the present study archaeological evidence and artistic depictions will be undertaken from key sites, including Sanchi, Gandhara, and Mathura, to demonstrate regional variations and artistic innovations.
Exploring Wisdom Deities in Buddhist Art: The Iconography and Symbolism in Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Traditions
Ankush Gupta, Research Scholar, Dept of Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Dr Vinod Kumar Jaiswal, Assistant Professor, Dept of Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Atul Kumar, Research Scholar, Dept of Economics, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
This paper explores the iconography and symbolism of wisdom deities in Buddhist art, focusing on the Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna traditions. It examines how these traditions visually express abstract concepts like wisdom, knowledge, and enlightenment through key deities such as Prajñāpāramitā, Mañjuśrī, Sarasvatī, and Vināyaka/Ganapati. The study investigates the distinct attributes, postures (āsanas), hand gestures (mudrās), and symbols that characterise these deities, revealing how these visual elements convey deeper philosophical meanings. Particular attention is given to symbolic attributes like the sword of wisdom, the scripture of insight, and vehicles such as lions and peacocks. These symbols embody qualities of knowledge, liberation, and enlightenment, reflecting the multifaceted nature of wisdom in Buddhist thought. The paper also traces the evolution of these iconographic representations across different regions and historical periods, exploring how their depiction has changed in response to cultural and doctrinal shifts. In doing so, the study highlights the role of visual symbols in transmitting Buddhist teachings, illustrating how these representations of wisdom deities are not only artistic expressions but also vital components of Buddhist practice, serving as tools for cultivating wisdom and attaining enlightenment within the Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna traditions.
Analysis of Floral and Faunal Depictions in Buddhist Art with Special Reference to the National Museum, India (Early Historic to Pala Period)
Gautam Anand, Indian Institute of Heritage (Formerly National Museum Institute), New Delhi, India
Buddhist art is deeply rooted in the symbolic representation of flora and fauna, which serve as metaphors for spiritual teachings, moral values, and ecological awareness. This study focuses on the representation of natural elements in Buddhist art, with special reference to the collection at the National Museum, India. By examining sculptures, paintings, and artefacts, it investigates how plants like the Bodhi tree and lotus, and animals such as lions, elephants, and deer, symbolise Buddhist teachings, virtues, and ecological harmony. The paper traces the evolution of these motifs across different periods and regions, from Gandhara and Mathura to later influences in Southeast Asia, highlighting their role in Buddhist iconography and narrative traditions. Through an interdisciplinary approach combining art history and religious studies, the research emphasises the symbolic and aesthetic significance of nature in Buddhist visual culture. The study underscores how these depictions bridge the spiritual and material worlds, offering insights into ancient ecological consciousness and their relevance to contemporary discussions on heritage and sustainability. The National Museum’s collection serves as a key resource for exploring this rich artistic legacy, providing a lens to understand the enduring relationship between nature and spirituality in Buddhist art.
Avalokiteshvara Across Asia: Artistic Transformations and Cultural Influences
Simran Deva, Research Scholar, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Prakhar Srivastav, Research Scholar, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Buddhism, a pan-Asian religion, spread widely across the continent through King Ashoka’s missionary efforts and flourishing trade networks. Over time, Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions popularised the concept of the Bodhisattva, with Avalokiteshvara emerging as one of the most revered figures in Buddhist iconography, celebrated for his compassion. The Karandavyuha Sutra describes Avalokiteshvara as a deity capable of manifesting in any form desired by his devotees, a trait allowing for significant artistic and iconographic diversity across Asia.
In India, Avalokiteshvara held a central position within the Mahayana tradition and inspired numerous sculptures and artistic representations. As Buddhism travelled to Asia, Avalokiteshvara’s imagery evolved, shaped by local cultural and artistic traditions. By the 8th century, regional styles began to emerge, giving rise to distinct forms such as the female Guanyin in China, the ascetic Avalokiteshvara in Vietnam, the Thousand-Armed Avalokiteshvara in Tibet, and the radiant Avalokiteshvara in Thailand.
This paper examines how Avalokiteshvara’s iconography transformed across Asia, focusing on the reasons behind these stylistic and cultural differences. It further explores how societal factors, local beliefs, and artistic traditions influenced the reinterpretation of Avalokiteshvara’s flexible and compassionate nature.
Avalokiteshvara: The Compassionate Bodhisattva in Pala Mastery
Akanksha Tiwari, Independent Research Scholar, Dept of Ancient Indian History Culture & Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, India
The sculpture of Avalokiteshvara, a prominent figure in Mahayana Buddhism, stands as a testament to the artistic and spiritual achievements of the Pala period (8th–12th centuries CE) in India. The Pala Empire, renowned for its contributions to Buddhist art and architecture, produced exquisite representations of deities that reflect both religious devotion and aesthetic finesse. Avalokiteshvara, known as the Bodhisattva of Compassion, is one of the most revered figures in Buddhist tradition, embodying the universal virtues of mercy, compassion, and selflessness. His portrayal in Pala art is distinct, blending iconography, symbolism, and intricate craftsmanship that set the school apart from others. The Avalokiteshvara sculptures of the Pala era typically depict the Bodhisattva seated in a graceful posture, often adorned with intricate jewellery and a serene facial expression symbolising inner peace. His right hand, typically extended in the gesture of granting boons (varadamudra), signifies his boundless compassion and willingness to assist beings in their journey toward enlightenment. The figure is often surrounded by finely detailed reliefs of attendants, lotus motifs, and other Buddhist symbols, reflecting the richness of Pala iconography. Pala sculptors mastered the balance between form and emotion, emphasising both the divine qualities of Avalokiteshvara and his approachable, human-like attributes. The use of local stone, along with refined carving techniques, gave the sculptures a sense of elegance and vitality. These artworks were not just religious objects but also instruments of spiritual reflection for devotees. In conclusion, this article tries to present Avalokiteshvara’s depiction in Pala art epitomises the blend of spiritual and artistic excellence, capturing the essence of compassion central to Mahayana Buddhism while showcasing the technical brilliance of Pala artisans.
Buddhist Art and its Influence on Chinese Porcelain
Aprajita Sharma, Archaeological Survey of India
Chinese porcelain, a high-fired ceramic from China, is renowned for its jade-like hardness, resonant sound, and lustrous, cowrie shell-like sheen. From the 10th to the 18th century CE, it was highly coveted in global trade, particularly in India. Before reaching India, Chinese porcelain passed through various merchants, facilitating not only economic exchanges but also cultural interactions.
The commercial ties between India and China extended beyond trade, fostering significant cross-cultural exchanges. One of the most profound outcomes was the spread of Buddhism to China. During the late Sui (581–618 CE) and early Tang (618–907 CE) dynasties, Buddhism flourished, shifting its religious and artistic epicentre from India to China. Indian Buddhist monks travelled to China, carrying scriptures, religious imagery, and artefacts. These influences inspired Chinese artisans to create Buddhist sculptures, construct stupas and temples, and incorporate Buddhist symbolism into art.
Notably, Buddhist motifs frequently adorned Chinese porcelain. This paper examines these cultural interactions and artistic influences, focusing on Buddhist elements found on Chinese porcelain discovered in India and beyond.
Plurality of Heads, Arms and Weapons in Buddhist Icons in Asia
Prof. Koyu Rajan, Dept of History, Government Victoria College, Palakkad, Kerala, India
The spread of Buddhism and associated features in various parts of Asia underlines the importance that religion has played in cementing ties between peoples across nations since ancient times. Buddhist art, like any other cultural trait of the world, shows that the journey of religions has not been stuck to the ethos of any specific group of people or of an age. The ancient Indian Buddhist icons became popular in central Asia, south Asia, south-east Asia and east Asia with changes. These were icons whose symbolism had originally been rooted in the Indian conditions. Representation of deities with multiple arms had begun in Brahmanism as early as the mid-first century A.D. Plurality of heads and arms had been resorted to in art for the purpose of easy identification. By the mid-first millennium A.D, the trend caught on in Buddhism as well. The iconographic representation of deities such as Bodhisattvas in multiple heads and arms had been very popular in sculpture and painting in countries including Japan. Buddhist art had come under the powerful influence of Saktaism and the result was evident in the depiction of deities such as Tara and Mahakala as ferocious looking and bearing weapons. This paper explores the historical and cultural backgrounds for such a change in Buddhist iconographic representations.
Buddhist Artistic Heritage of Nepal: A Journey through Traditional Paintings
Prof. Dhan Bahadur Kunwar, Former Head, Nepalese History, Culture & Archaeology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu; Former Chairman and Currently Member, Nepal National Ethnographic Museum, Bhirkutimandap, Kathmandu; Former Vice-Chairman, ICOM Nepal
Nepali painting is one strong pillar of Nepali culture. The tradition of painting emerged and developed during the early medieval period (c.10th AD) and after. It is believed that in ancient periods wall painting was very popular in palaces, temples, monasteries and public buildings, as well as in private houses. The first group of painting appear on a host of Hindu and Buddhist manuscripts, especially on their covers and inside the text. Gradually, Nepalese painters began to use cloth, paper, wood, several cold country tree leaves and barks, walls and ceilings. Pata, Thangka, portraits, frescoes, Paubha, flags and temple façades, among others, promoted the painting tradition. The present article will dwell on all the varieties of Nepalese paintings in brief. One important aspect of Thangka painting is that it has created a separate class in the Newar society, called the Chitrakar, or Painter. Tourism has promoted a new genre of Thangka painters amongst the Tamang community youngsters. Museums of Nepal have given special spaces for paintings. Buddhist paintings are very popular in the country. Professionally, young Buddhist and Hindu people also follow this profession. Degree and non-degree research on painting has been undertaken. This paper will cover the history of painting, varieties of painting, and the relation between culture and painting, among other issues.
Buddhist Art of Kuda Caves and Karle Caves: A Comparative Study
Shreya Bhosale, architect; IGNOU, India; Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune, India
Sarla (Rashmi) Bhirud, independent researcher
Shreekant Phatak, civil engineer and independent researcher
The rock-cut caves of Kuda, located in Maharashtra’s Konkan region, exhibit distinct sculptural and architectural features. Among these, Cave No. 6 is particularly notable for its depictions of Mithuna (embracing couples) and a richly adorned female figure, offering insights into contemporary clothing and ornamentation. The Karle Caves, one of the most significant Buddhist rock-cut sites in western India, are known for their grand chaitya hall and intricate reliefs. The sculptures at Karle, including donor figures and decorative motifs, serve as key references for stylistic comparisons.
This study presents a comparative analysis of the sculptures at Kuda and Karle, focusing on stylistic elements, carving techniques, and artistic influences. By examining iconographic similarities and variations, the research establishes chronological and aesthetic connections between the two sites. It highlights patterns in craftsmanship, the geographical setting of the caves, and the purpose behind their carvings. The analysis is based on sculptural details and artistic execution, without speculating on cultural interpretations.
The methodology includes direct observation, stylistic assessment, and comparative analysis of reliefs at both sites. The study aims to provide a clearer understanding of the artistic traditions and technical aspects that shaped the sculptures of Kuda and Karle within the broader context of Buddhist rock-cut architecture.