Format: Paper presentations with discussion
Convenors:
Dr Virag G. Sontakke, Assistant Professor, Dept Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India, virag@bhu.ac.in
Dr Soumi Sengupa, Assistant Professor (Guest Faculty), History & Archaeology, NEHU, Tura Campus, Meghalaya, India, soumisengupta122@gmail.com
Dr Amalka Wjesuriya, Lecturer in Archaeology at the Department of History and Archaeology, University of Ruhuna, Matara, Sri Lanka, amalkaw@hist.ruh.ac.lk
South Asia’s historical archaeology (with a chronological focus from 800 BCE to 750 CE) is a crucial period characterised by the second urbanisation and growth of cities, towns, and fortified settlements in the region. This period demonstrates technological advancements in every facet of society, including writing systems, coinage, ironwork, ceramics, and luxury goods. This period is crucial for understanding the complex histories of South Asia, with a rich history of urbanisation, trade, cultural interaction, and social transformation. Historical archaeology in this context broadly combines traditional archaeological methods with the insights drawn from historical texts, inscriptions, coins, and other written records, allowing the reconstruction of political, economic, and social trends in the ancient past.
The historical archaeology of South Asia shows the processes of urbanisation, trade, and cultural interactions. The archaeological record reveals the rise and development of urban cities, extensive trade networks, and the dynamic religious-cultural exchanges that shaped the entirety of Asia. This session explores the role of urbanisation in transforming the landscape of South Asia. This period marked the growth and development of intricate trade and the initiation of new routes, both terrestrial and maritime. Archaeological evidence sheds light on-site hierarchies, settlement patterns, and changes in material culture, including ceramics, beads, ivory, and sculptural art. These interactions fostered significant cultural exchanges, as seen in the diffusion of religious practices, artistic traditions, and technological innovations across the Indian Ocean, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia. This session examines the settlement patterns and locations of historical sites, their continual growth across various cultural periods, and the exchange of ideas, philosophies, religions, and material culture both within and between sites. This session aims to cover, but is not limited to, the archaeological excavations, results of survey, scientific analysis, settlement and landscape patterns, art and architecture, epigraphs and scripts, trade and patronage.
Sub-themes include:
1. Archaeological excavation of historical sites
2. Survey and documentation of historical records
3. Scientific analysis and results
4. Settlement pattern, landscape study and location: GIS, LIDAR and survey
5. Trade and exchange through literature and archaeology
6. Regional characteristics and intra-site associations
7. Religious impact and settlements
8. Art and architecture: Stupa, Chaitya, monasteries, rock-cut caves and temples
9. Inscription, patronage and social hierarchies
10. Any other allied topics relevant to the subthemes.
Papers:
Kutch: A Land without Counterpart on the Globe—A Perception from History
Aishwarya Mhaske, PhD Research Fellow, Heritage Science and Society Program, School of Humanities, National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru, India
This research focuses on the geographical and historical perceptions of Kutch, in western India, as represented in ancient texts and cartographic records. Kutch holds significant archaeological, historical, and maritime importance. The paper explores descriptions from four major historical sources: the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Claudius Ptolemy, John Huyghen van Linschoten, and James Rennell. These accounts, along with maps derived from them, provide varying perspectives on Kutch’s geography and landscape. The study highlights maritime hazards described in the Periplus, Ptolemy’s geographical coordinates, and Linschoten and Rennell’s later observations of navigational features and terrestrial details. Analysis of seven historical maps reveals an evolving understanding of Kutch’s shape, location, and size over time.
Geospatial tools, including digital elevation models, were used to reconstruct terrain and analyse features from historical records. The integration of ancient texts, cartographic data, and scientific research in geology and geomorphology offers a multidimensional perspective linking human history with land interactions. The research emphasises the complexities of interpreting historical data and the blend of myth and observation in shaping perceptions of Kutch. It enriches the historical geography of the region by combining ancient narratives with modern spatial analysis techniques.
Recent Excavations at Babhaniyav (2020-2022), District – Varanasi, India
Dr Ashok Kumar Singh, Associate Professor, Centre of Advanced Study, Dept of Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Dr Ravi Shankar, Assistant Professor, Arya Mahila Post Graduate College, Varanasi, India
The protohistoric settlement of Babhaniyav is located on the ancient palaeo-channel of the river Ganga in the district of Varanasi. The site extends over about one square kilometres. Archaeological excavation here was conducted during 2020-2022 by the Banaras Hindu University, and revealed the following culture-sequence:
Period I- Chalcolithic Period (1500 BCE – 900 BCE)
Period II- Pre NBPW with Iron (900 BCE – 600 BCE)
Period III- NBPW Period (600 BCE – 200 BCE)
Period IV- Shunga-Kushana Period (200BCE -300AD)
Period V- Gupta & Post Gupta periods (300 AD-700 AD)
The remains of Period I are represented by a 70 cm cultural deposit. The inhabitants of this period lived in wattle -and- daub houses. Remains of Period II (Early Iron Age) are represented by a 40 cm cultural deposit and of Period III by an occupational deposit of 70 cm. An important discovery from this excavation was a beautiful Shivlinga of the Kushana period which was established in a temple at the mound. This is the earliest temple of the Kashi region.
Archaeology of the Cyclopean Walls of Rajgir, Bihar, India
Tosabanta Padhan, Nalanda University, Rajgir, Bihar, India
This paper presents field studies conducted on the outer fortification wall, popularly known as the Cyclopean Wall, which belonged to the first capital city of the Magadh Empire during the early historic period. These outer city walls are monumental stone structures that encircle the seven hills surrounding ancient Rajagriha, located in present-day Rajgir, South Bihar, India. Primarily serving as a military fortification, the wall features bastions, watchtowers, and ramps integrated at key strategic points. Over centuries, several rulers meticulously planned, designed, constructed, repaired, rerouted, and reconstructed the wall. The fortifications were connected to various security features, including caves, tunnels, rock shelters, and water bodies on the hilltops, and also played a vital role in the city’s hydraulic network. Engineered to channel water efficiently, the wall safeguarded the city from flash floods and mitigated the risks of drought. This multi-purpose design highlights the advanced engineering and planning of the mighty Magadh, making the Cyclopean Wall a testament to their ingenuity and architectural prowess. Although the Cyclopean Wall dates back to before the 6th century BCE, there is no definitive record of its chronology, which requires scientific dating.
A Study of Settlement Pattern from the Pre-NPBW Period to the Early Medieval Period in Ancient Kashi
Deepesh Singh, Research Fellow, Dept of Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Dr Virag Sontakke, Dept of Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Kashi has been the centre of attraction since ancient times. Archaeological findings report it is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities of the world. This study investigates into settlement patterns in Kashi dating back from Pre-NBPW to the early medieval period, particularly a focus on the initiation, expansion and desertion of the settlements in ancient Kashi. Archaeological evidence suggests that, initially a rural society was established during Pre-NBPW period, then a progressive growth in settlement size from the NBPW to the Mauryan period. The major change in settlements was observed during the Kushana period, when the maximum area of Kashi Janapada was occupied. Interestingly, settlement activity dropped significantly during the Gupta period, and this trend continued until the early medieval period. Excavations at numerous sites have provided vital information about Kashi’s settlement patterns, material culture, and cultural evolution throughout the periods. However, the non-availability of detailed information on the earlier explorations and excavations makes it difficult to understand the complete scenario of settlements in ancient Kashi. To fill the gap in previous research and understand the settlement pattern of the ancient Kashi the researchers explored the ancient Kashi region and tries to understand the location of the sites, their material.
Early Urbanisation and Ancient Settlement in Coastal Odisha
Dr Sikhasree Ray, Assistant Professor, Fakir Mohan University, Balasore, Odisha, India
Dr Soumi Sengupta, Assistant Professor (Guest faculty), North Eastern Hills University, Tura Campus, Meghalaya, India
Coastal Odisha, India’s eastern coast has a rich history of early urbanization and ancient settlement patterns. The region’s early urbanization can be traced back to prehistoric and protohistoric periods, with agriculture, trade, and religious practices playing key roles. Major settlements like Sisupalgarh and Dhaneshwar demonstrate long-distance trade, advanced metallurgy, and urban planning. The Kalinga kingdom’s growth and the influence of Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism further shaped the region’s cultural landscape. This research explores the complex processes of early urbanization in Coastal Odisha, analysing settlement patterns, trade networks and cultural influences. This research is based on extensive exploration and review work.
The research will use archaeological, historical, and geographical techniques to study early urbanization and settlements in Odisha. It will analyse pottery, tools, beads, and cultural objects to infer technological advancements, trade, and daily life. The study will also examine urban planning, drainage systems, and religious buildings to assess urbanisation. Ancient literary texts and inscriptions will be examined to understand administration, trade, and religious practices.
Archaeological Excavation at Vadnagar (Gujarat) – Uninterrupted Cultural Occupation Contributing to the Formulation of a Cultural Index of Western India
Abhijit S. Ambekar, Superintending Archaeologist, Archaeological Survey of India, India
Ananya Chakraborty, Assistant Archaeologist, Archaeological Survey of India, India
Vadnagar, located in Gujarat, India, stands out by its uninterrupted settlement from the pre-2nd century BCE to the present. The excavation undertaken by the Archaeological Survey of India led to the examination of the cultural assemblage of this site, which is essential for identifying the significant transformations they underwent throughout time and for the development of a robust chronology. The main objective is to verify and ascertain the temporal framework of cultural materialism as defined from traditional cultural sequences, alongside the radiometric dating established utilising AMS.
A challenge in determining the earliest date and lowest stratified context of cultural deposition is the presence of a high watertable at the site. However, the excavation successfully resulted in the documentation of seven cultural periods of continuous human habitation, extending roughly 2754 calibrated years (B.P.). The earliest period thus aligns with the Late-Vedic/pre-Buddhist/Mahajanapadas or oligarchic republics, succeeded by a cultural period concurrent with the Mauryan rule, the Indo-Greeks, and subsequently the Indo-Scythian or Saka-Kshatrapas (also referred to as ‘Satraps’, descendants of ancient Achaemenid provincial governors), the Maitraka, the Chavada, the Solankis, the Vaghela, the Sultanate-Mughal (Islamic), the Gaekwad-British colonial administration, and the present day.
An Appraisal of Paintings in Buddhist Rock-cut Caves of Western Maharashtra, with Special Reference to Pitalkhora
Dhairya Vyas, Independent researcher
The Deccan houses over 800 rock-cut complexes of varying sizes and geographical settings. These monastic complexes, in addition to housing members of the samgha, are custodians of a documented historical past due to the number of inscriptions, and are repositories of a vast corpus of art, in sculptural manifestations, architectural monumentalisations and representations in painting. While sculptures have received exhaustive attention, the study of paintings has generally been restricted to Ajanta, Bagh, and to a small extent, Pitalkhora, generating a perception that there is a general absence of painting activities at other rock-cut complexes.
This paper appraises the extent and scale of painting activities undertaken at other rock-cut establishments, such as Karle, Bedse, Bhaje, Kanheri, etc, with a particular focus on Pitalkhora. This paper proposes to examine the variations of modes, themes and popular subjects seen in all the sites, drawing comparisons and assessments of the variations in artistic idioms.
Revealing a Possible Ancient Inland Port: Exploring the Archaeological Record Along the Lavani Aru in Eastern Sri Lanka
Amalka Wijesuriya Juwan Wadu, Dept of History and Archaeology, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka
Chinthaka Wijethunge, Dept of Archaeology, Sri Lanka
Seevali Manathunge, Arunapriya Nileja, Kalani Hewage, Nimalsha Gamaathige, Sadeepa Nakandala, Sanduni Weerakoon and Saranga Weerasinghage, Dept of History and Archaeology, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka has been a major trading hub since historical times, owing to its strategically important location in the Indian Ocean. As a result, numerous ancient ports, confirmed by both literary and archaeological sources, are located on the Sri Lankan coastline. In the absence of an advanced road network, river and canal systems were used as the main means of transporting goods between inland areas and these coastal trading ports. Inland ports and trading centres were located along these waterways to facilitate the exchange goods. This research conducted a field archaeological survey of an archaeological site located on the banks of the Lavani Aru in the Eastern Province, Sri Lanka, with the aim of confirming a possible location of such inland port that has not yet been discovered. The main objective of this research is to identify the functions and special organization of an ancient inland port. Data collection in this research was mainly carried out through field walking along the riverbank, and the observed archaeological records were documented manually and digitally. The results of this research made it possible to confirm the existence of an inland port, providing valuable insight into the extent and role within ancient trade network.
Urbanisation in Early Historic India: A Case Study or Eran, Madhya Pradesh
Riya Kumari, Dept of Ancient Indian History Culture & Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Eran, an ancient settlement in Madhya Pradesh’s Sagar district, holds significant historical value in understanding early urbanization in South Asia. Situated along the Betwa River, it emerged as a key political, economic, and cultural centre during the second wave of urbanization (circa 600 BCE–500 CE). Despite its prominence, particularly during the Gupta period, many aspects of its urban planning, settlement dynamics, and integration into broader trade and cultural networks remain underexplored. This interdisciplinary research examines Eran’s urban history by analysing inscriptions, archaeological evidence, and material culture. A primary focus is the Varaha sculpture, alongside pottery and coins, to explore the interplay of religion and trade. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and other tools aid in investigating settlement patterns, city layout, and water management systems. Additionally, comparisons with multicultural patronage networks in Central India provide insights into Eran’s socio-religious dynamics. By advancing the study of trade and cultural networks, this research offers a deeper exploration of Eran’s urban character, contributing to broader discussions on cultural diffusion and regional interactions. It enhances our understanding of early city life in Central India and its role within the larger framework of historic urbanization.
Study of Stupa Architecture Based on Selected Archaeological Sites in North Central of Sri Lanka
Ven. Dr Uduwila Uparathana, Bhiksu University of Sri Lanka, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka
Amalka Wijesuriya, University of Ruhuna, Wellamadama, Sri Lanka
The stupa serves as a symbol of the Buddha and his doctrine and holds a cultural importance within the Buddhist tradition of Sri Lanka. Various terms have been adopted to cite the stupa, such as chaitya, tupa, seya, and pagoda. The mahaparinibbana sutta in Deeganikaya has mentioned that the chaitya is suitable to build for four kinds of persons: samma sambuddha, paccheka buddha, arahant, and chakravarti maha raja. There are several types of stupas that can be identified in Sri Lanka: bubbulakara (bubble shape), Dhanyakara (shape of the rice mound), ghantakara (shape of the bell), and padmakara (shape of the lotus). This study aims to clarify the type of the stupa and their usage patterns, based on bubble-shape and bell-shape chaityas unearthed in the Anuradhapura area. The objectives of this study are to identify the land use patterns for building the stupas in historical periods, to understand the materials used to build the stupas, and to ascertain the associated architectural features and water management systems. The methods employ site surveys, collected data from historical and archaeological sources, reading mapping, and ground planning. Preliminary results of this study indicate the patterns in stupa design and mechanical strategies used in stupa construction.
Six Recently Discovered One-hole Stone Anchors in Gandara, Sri Lanka
Mahinda Karunarathna, Development Officer, Archaeologist, Underwater Archaeology Unit, Exploration Branch, Dept of Archaeology, Sri Lanka
Palitha Weerasinghe, Assistant Director (Exploration), Archaeologist, Exploration Branch, Dept of Archaeology, Sri Lanka
Kasun Weerasekara, Development Officer, Archaeologist, Underwater Archaeology Unit, Exploration Branch, Dept of Archaeology, Sri Lanka
W. M. Chandrarathne, Assistant Director for Southern Province and OIC in Maritime Archaeology Unit, Central Cultural Fund, Sri Lanka
Rukshan Priyandana, Former Maritime Archaeological Officer, Archaeologist, Maritime Archaeology Unit, Central Cultural Fund, Sri Lanka
Lakmal Samarasinghe, Development Officer, Maintaining Branch, Dept of Archaeology, Sri Lanka
Ruwan Jayantha, Development Officer, Exploration Branch, Dept of Archaeology, Sri Lanka
This paper deals with six newly uncovered, one-hole stone anchors from Gandara seaport, located on the southern coast of Sri Lanka. In March and April 2022, an underwater archaeological impact assessment (UAIA) was undertaken by the Underwater Archaeology Unit (UAU) of the Department of Archaeology and Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU), as the Ministry of Fisheries, Sri Lanka, proposed to begin the Gandara Fisheries Harbor Development Project (GFHDP). Six circular and square stone anchors that contain inner circular or square holes and other artefacts were recorded through surveys in the inner and outer areas of the port. Similar stone anchors have been found at ancient Godavaya, Galle, and Nagadeepa ports on the northern and southern coasts of Sri Lanka, in India, Maldives and Oman. These stone anchors indicate Gandara was an ancient seaport that had connections with the external world during the historical period of Sri Lanka.