Format: Paper presentations with discussion
Convenors:
Dr Vysakh Ambili Santhosh, Assistant Professor, Post Graduate Dept of History & Research Centre, Sree Narayana College, Chempazhanthy, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India, padmasreevysh@gmail.com
Dr Ahmed Lotfy, Heritage Officer, Ministry of Antiquities and Tourism, Egypt, lotfyspirit33@gmail.com
The tapestry of human civilisation is intricately woven with a myriad of belief systems, customs, and religions that have evolved over millennia. These systems not only reflect humanity’s understanding of the universe and existence but also shape societal structures, cultural expressions, and interpersonal and international relationships. Prehistoric times offer testimony to the origins of belief systems, wherein early humans developed rudimentary forms of beliefs and rituals. These belief systems were likely animistic at their core, ascribing spiritual significance to natural elements, such as animals, plants, and geographical features. As societies transitioned from nomadic lifestyles to agrarian and settled communities, belief systems evolved into more structured forms of religion, particularly polytheism. Ancient civilisations, including the Egyptians, Mesopotamians, Indus Valley cultures, and Chinese societies, developed intricate pantheons and rituals with institutions and centres of worship serving both spiritual and social functions. The emergence of belief cults, or new religious movements, has also been observed throughout history, often responding to social, cultural, and psychological factors. These groups, ranging from small, localised communities to larger organised religions, propose alternative interpretations of spirituality and morality. Asia, regarded as the cradle of world religions and cultic practices, often inseparable from political course of history. Material remnants in Asia symbolise religious beliefs, facilitating worship and cultural connections. Monuments, artefacts, and sacred spaces reflect historical narratives and fosters their ‘identity’ through rituals and festivals. Asia is the largest continent with scope for archaeological research related to sacred beliefs.
This panel will discuss various aspects of sacred archaeology, including customs, rituals, formation of religion, cults, symbolisms, material remnants of belief systems, art and architecture, religious movements, along with how religion has shaped Asian cultures. The panel posits to discuss broader aspects of how belief systems and its tangible and intangible heritage builds the identity of Asia and its archaeological scope.
Papers:
The Role of Sri Lankan Cave Temple Art in Shaping Buddhist Practices and Cognitive Perception of Devotees
Ganga Rajinee Dissanayaka, Deputy Coordinator-AHEAD-DOR-HEAMS-World Bank Funded Project, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka
Asoka de Zoysa, Retired Professor, Dept of Modern Languages; Former Director of the Samkathana Research Centre, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka
Sri Lankan rock art, including cave paintings and inscriptions, offers invaluable insights into the symbolic, social, and religious practices of ancient human societies. This study explores the role of rock art in understanding the cultural landscape of early Sri Lanka, with a particular focus on the representation of Buddhist practices and their influence on the cognitive perception of devotees. Rock temple art found in iconic sites, such as the Cave Temples of Dambulla and the Salawa, reflects the deep integration of Buddhist philosophy, iconography, and religious rituals into the art forms of the island. The depiction of Buddhist motifs, such as the Buddha’s life events, symbolic representations of the Buddha’s presence, and the use of sacred geometry, illustrate how Buddhist art functioned not only as a means of visual expression but also as a tool for spiritual communication and meditation. This research examines how the cognitive perception of the devotees was shaped by these artworks, fostering a deeper connection to the divine and enhancing religious experience. Through carefully studying these paintings and inscriptions, it becomes evident that ancient Sri Lankan artists employed innovative techniques to convey spiritual narratives and engage the viewer in a transformative process. By integrating archaeological, art historical, and anthropological perspectives, this study aims to highlight how rock art played a crucial role in developing Buddhist religious practices, guiding devotees toward a more profound understanding of Buddhist teachings and reinforcing communal religious identities.
The Treasures Within: Archaeological Riches of Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple (Kerala) and Glimpses of Cultural Formation
Dr Vysakh Ambili Santhosh, Assistant Professor, Post Graduate Dept of History & Research Centre, Sree Narayana College, Chempazhanthy, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
The Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple in Kerala, India, is a breath-taking exemplar of the fusion between Indian Dravidian and traditional Kerala architecture, reflecting the region’s vibrant cultural heritage. Dedicated to Lord Vishnu, this Hindu temple is revered as one of the 108 Divya Desams, which are considered sacred abodes of Vishnu within the Sri Vaishnava tradition. An exemplary showcase of ancient science and technology, the construction of Padmanabhaswamy Temple reveals sophisticated techniques, such as unique musical pillars, single stone platforms, and the ingenious application of symmetrical patterns and stone locking systems. The idol of the deity, crafted using ancient plastering knowledge, further enhances the temple’s distinctiveness. Interestingly, the temple was built in accordance with precise astronomical calculations, allowing for stunning visual phenomena such as the captivating sight of eclipses. Inscriptions and archival documents that date back to the 8th century AD shed light on the temple’s socio-political interactions, detailing endowments and grants, ritual traditions, and the political economy of the era. The temple’s socio-cultural relevance is accentuated by the development of an urban settlement within its precincts, drawing a diverse population of various castes and occupations, and fostering a remarkable synthesis of traditions and beliefs. Recently, the temple garnered international attention when a treasure trove of gold, diamonds, precious stones, and ancient coins was discovered in its concealed vaults, greatly enhancing its historical significance and making it the richest temple in the world. Among the treasures were coins dating back to the Roman era, Venetian ducats, and currency from the 1700s, further emphasising the temple’s long-standing connections to trade and economic interactions.
This paper aims to provide an in-depth appraisal of the Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple, exploring its structural and artistic peculiarities as well as the unique cultural interactions that are illuminated through its archaeological and historical remnants.
Sacred Strategies: The Military Function of Temples and ‘Salais’ in South India
Arya Shabu, Post Graduate Dept of History & Research Centre, Sree Narayana College, Chempazhanthy, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
Dr Vysakh Ambili Santhosh, Post Graduate Dept of History & Research Centre, Sree Narayana College, Chempazhanthy, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
In South India, temples served not only as religious centres but also as significant educational institutions and hubs of military training. While the role of ancient universities in both Hindu and Buddhist traditions is well-documented, the educational legacy of South Indian temples remains relatively unexplored. In medieval Kerala, temples functioned as dual centres for learning and military prowess, often linked to Salais (academies) that offered training in classical texts, sciences, and martial disciplines. This was necessitated by the socio-political upheavals during the Chola, Chera, and Pandya conquests. Temples received substantial patronage to sustain these academic institutions, which also housed students known as Chattas. Military training offered at these academies was of international standards, attracting learners from Southeast Asia. Archaeological evidence supports the existence of these Salais in temple complexes, with notable locations including Kanthaloor, Vizhinjam,
Prathivasekharapuram, Thiruvalla, etc. Inscriptions reveal that these institutions played a crucial role in shaping regional political landscapes, contributing to the dominance of their patrons. This paper aims to highlight the multifaceted functions of temples in South India, emphasising their significance not only in spiritual life but also in the realms of education and military training within broader socio-political contexts.
Recent Rare Findings of Stone Sculptures from Babhaniyav, Varanasi, India
Dr Ravi Shankar, Assistant Professor, Arya Mahila PG College, Varanasi, India
Dr Ashok Kumar Singh, Associate Professor, Centre of Advanced Study, Dept of Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India,
Babhaniyav, a proto-historic archaeological site located in the ancient city of Varanasi, India, is situated on the Panchkroshi parikrama route, an ancient religious path of historical importance. Due to extensive agricultural work by villagers, a widespread lack of awareness and haphazard cutting of the mound, the original form of the ancient site has been spoiled. At the time of survey, ceramics from the Chalcolithic period to the early medieval period had been recovered from the site. Fragmentary sculptures of Hindu gods and goddesses are scattered on the mound. It includes stone sculptures, panels, door-jams, Shivlingas and several incomplete stone pillars. At the present time, many sculptures, including an important Shivalinga, are worshiped by the villagers.
Panels were initially placed on the outer walls of the temple with carved images on both sides, and seem to have been used to enhance the spiritual beauty of the temple. The images are beautifully and skilfully carved. Vishnu, Shiva-Parvati, Surya, Mahishasura-Mardini, Durga, Kartikeya, Hanuman, Ganesh etc. are prominent amongst the stone sculptures. The main objective of this research paper is to present these important features and make people aware of Babhaniyav’s archaeological importance.
Exploring the Tangible and Intangible Elements of Ayurvedic Tradition in Kerala: A Historical and Contemporary Perspective of the Millenia Knowledge System
Sumisha P. Sudhan, Junior Research Fellow, University of Calicut, Malappuram, Kerala, India
Ayurveda in Kerala boasts a rich history of tradition, culture, and practices, tracing back to the earliest civilisations. This knowledge, acquired by inhabitants through their experiences and adaptation to their environment, is evident in archaeological findings from sites like Pattanam, where various herbal plant remains and tools have been discovered. Human evolution and the progress of civilisations are intertwined with diseases and the capacity to resist them, highlighting the importance of medical practices. Archaeological evidence, including inscriptions, directly or indirectly mention Ayurvedic practices in ancient Kerala. Inscriptional and palm leaf records showcase land grants given to medical practitioners in return for their services, representing tangible elements of ancient medical practices. Textual evidence, such as the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita, provides the theoretical foundation of Ayurveda, constituting the intangible elements. Prominent Ayurvedic familial lineages, like the Kottakkal Aryavaidya Sala, have preserved and propagated this knowledge through generations and in addition, these centres are crucial for education and treatment, ensuring the continuity of Ayurvedic heritage. This paper focuses on the tangible and intangible elements of ancient medical practices in Kerala, supported by archaeological evidence, and explores the traditional transmission of Ayurvedic knowledge through familial lineages.
The Sacred Hills of Krishna and the Mighty Bows of Arjuna: Exploring the Dilemma of Archaeology and Community Beliefs in Eastern Nepal
Dr Abhijeet Thapa, Lecturer, Central Dept of Nepalese History, Culture & Archaeology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal
The Mahabharata has been widely debated among historians and archaeologists in the South Asian region. Many term it myth, while others believe it to be a history. It is true that the epic depicts the multifarious façades ranging from the social, economic, philosophical and spiritual lifestyles of the civilisations of the ancient Indian subcontinent. In this region, many archaeological ruins or sites have been attributed to the heroic events of the Mahabharata by local people. Thus, a unique destination repute for the locations has been created throughout the Indian subcontinent, ranging from Delhi as Hastinapura to east Nepal as king Virat’s kingdom or the Pandavas’ retreat during their last year of incognito. The events of the Ramayana are also linked to as far as to Sri Lanka. Academicians and historians aside, many a time the public romanticise their findings and places to heroic characters of the epics. As such, this research assesses concerns of public archaeology and ethical perspectives of the destinations’ repute because of the unknown authenticity of the tangible objects, ruins and remains. Three sites of study – Krishnathumki, Sadhutar and Dhanushkuti in east Nepal, all in proximity to the ruins of palatial complexes of Kichakbadh, have been selected to analyse this issue. The research, aided by multiple field visits to dozens of such sites, reveals the uncanny beliefs and rituals of locals therein. The sites, whether or not they are truly associated with such Mahabharata incidents, can only be determined through the archaeological findings and wise interpretation of the sites. The epic’s authenticity and origin is another side to the concern. More important is to answer why and how locals become involved in the domino effect of romanticising their places into the romantics of the Mahabharata. This research attempts to answer these questions, along with providing a set of possible strategies to address the archaeological dilemma, which may also provoke further future researches in the area of concern.
The Legacy of Serpent Worship in Kerala
Sourav V., History, Dept of Social Sciences, Vellore Institute of Technology, India
Hasanath K. P., Dept of History, University of Calicut, India
Mohamed Rashid V. P., Independent Research Scholar, Ponnani, Malappuram, India
Dr Sivadasan P., Professor (Sr), Dept of History, University of Calicut, India
Dr Bangalore Morarji, Dept of Social Sciences, Vellore Institute of Technology, India
The Naga cult, or serpent worship, is one of the most ancient forms of worship in India. Serpents (nagas) were the most prominent figures as reflected in ancient Indian literature. According to reports, the excavation at the Neolithic site of Chirand in Bihar provided the first archaeological proof of the serpent cult in India.
Kerala, known as God’s Own Country, boasts cultural pluralism that enriches its diversity. The state has a variety of ritual practices and performances, among which serpent worship, or ‘ophiolatry,’ is significant. Serpent worship has long been a major part of religious life in Kerala, and its antiquity goes back as far as the Iron Age period. The recent discovery of petroglyphs of snakes from different parts of Kerala also indicates the long testimony and popularity of such practices.
The cult of snake worship in Kerala is closely interwoven with the life of the people of the state and is a component of its rich cultural heritage. Kerala is also famous for serpent worship in different forms. Sacred groves, or sarppakkavu, are used as ritual spaces for all kinds of serpent worship, like sarppamthullal (snake dance), noorum palum (food offerings to snakes), etc. In Kerala, there exists an ethnographic community known as Pulluvar, traditionally associated with serpent worship and rituals. They perform a ritual called Pulluvan Pattu (songs by pulluvas) to praise the snake gods, which involves singing and making sacrificial offerings. Throughout Kerala, there are temples devoted to serpent worship. There are also temples in Kerala that worship snakes as sub-deities, placed outside or on the premises of the sanctum.
This paper examines the archaeological and historical evidence of serpent worship in Kerala, with a particular focus on the Alappuzha and Palakkad regions.
Exploring Balagraha: Insights from the Sushruta Samhita and Archaeological Evidence from the Middle Ganga Plains
Garima Khansili, Nalanda University, Rajgir, Bihar, India
Ancient Indian Ayurved texts, like the Sushruta Samhita, Ashtanga Samgraha and others, describe harmful spirits—referred to as Graha and Matr. These Graha and Matr are collectively called Balagraha and are believed to afflict infants. The Ayurved texts outline various protective rituals and the deities associated with the Balagraha. The proposed paper explores the connection between the ancient Indian Ayurved texts, particularly Sushruta Samhita, and the archaeological evidence in the context of fertility and infant protection rituals. Moving beyond the conventional classification of terracotta figurines as mere “mother goddesses,” the study seeks to interpret these artefacts from the broader cultural and medical perspective of ancient Indian society, particularly in the Middle Ganga Plains. The objective is to examine the socio-cultural significance of these figurines and their connection to fertility practices, shedding light on the cultural and medical beliefs surrounding infant protection in ancient India.
Living Traditions and Religious Heritage Place at Phra That Phanom, an Outstanding Representative in the Northeastern Region of Thailand
Supitcha Sutthanonkul, Southeast Asian Regional Centre for Archaeology and Fine Arts, Bangkok, Thailand
Sachipan Srikanlaya, Southeast Asian Regional Centre for Archaeology and Fine Arts, Bangkok, Thailand
Phra That, a significant example of religious architecture in Buddhist belief, stands as a profound testament to the harmonious interchange of human values and the dissemination of cultural and spiritual ideals. This study examines Phra That Phanom, a highly revered Buddhist pagoda in northeast Thailand, as a representative example of such interexchange, located within the sacred complex along the Mekong River. The pagoda, believed to enshrine sacred relics of the Buddha and developed progressively over centuries, symbolises the transmission of Buddhism from its origins in South Asia to Southeast Asia, with particular emphasis on its spread along the Mekong River. Throughout its history, Phra That Phanom has significantly influenced regional architectural styles and monumental art, harmoniously blending indigenous traditions with external cultural influences. Beyond its physical significance, the development of this pagoda and its surrounding landscape embodies the vibrant living traditions and beliefs of multi-ethnic communities of the region, as well as ‘Kha O Gas’, the surrounding communities who have safeguarded this sacred heritage through generations and deeply intertwined with the cultural tradition of merit-making, which continues to shape the site’s physical and spiritual significance.
Exploring Social and Religious Narratives Through Kerala’s Mural Art
Sheena V. R., Assistant Professor on Contract, Dept of Archaeology, University of Kerala, India
Renjeshlal S.R., Assistant Professor on Contract, Dept of Archaeology, University of Kerala, India
Murals are a vibrant part of Kerala’s traditional heritage, often embellishing the walls of temples, palaces, and churches across the region. Among these, temple murals are the most plentiful and detailed. The earliest evidence of mural paintings in Kerala dates back to the 8th century CE, with significant examples found in the rock-cut temples of Thirunandikkara, then part of ancient Travancore. However, the tradition of mural painting in Kerala did not undergo continuous development until the 14th century CE, and from 17th CE onwards the reiteration of murals can be traced over various temples, palaces, and churches across Kerala.
Early artists focus more on social themes rather than religious narratives, but by the later periods, religious themes dominated the artwork, with social elements often knitted throughout. Given the limited historical documentation of Kerala’s society between the 16th and 18th centuries, these murals serve as a decisive medium for understanding the socio-cultural and religious fabric of Keralan society.
Evolving Divinity: Tracing the Religious Conception of the Buddha in the Colossal Statues of Sri Lanka
Kakulandala Vithanage Janitha Koshalee, Dept of History and Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka
The colossal Buddha statues of Sri Lanka have long been the subject of scholarly interest, with studies focusing on their artistic value, stylistic aspects, symbolic interpretations, and, more recently, their monumental scale. This study revolves around colossal standing and sedentary Buddha statues crafted from stone and plastered brick, dating from approximately the mid-first millennium CE to the 13th century CE. These statues are located at monastic sites such as Avukana, Rasvehera, Dowa, Buduruwagala, Maligawila, Gal Vihara, Tivanka, and Lankatilaka. Moving beyond their material presence, this study explores how Buddhist perceptions of the Buddha evolved, as reflected in the variations of these statues. It traces their transformation from a standardised model to diverse representations, showcasing shifts in artistic expression and the evolving conceptions of the Buddha in Sri Lankan society. This study uncovers the dynamic interplay between art, religion, and culture in ancient Sri Lanka by linking material remains to intangible spiritual beliefs often documented in literary works.