Format: Paper presentations with discussion
Convenors:
Dr Kantikumar Pawar, Coordinator, Bihar Heritage Development Society, Dept of Art, Culture and Youth, Government of Bihar, Patna, India, kantipawar@gmail.com
Dr Ruman Banerjee, Assistant Professor, Dept of History, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India, deccanruman@gmail.com
Mr Rutwij Apte, Research associate, IIT Madras, Pravartak Technology Foundation, Chennai; visiting faculty; Centre for Extra Mural Studies, Mumbai University, India, rutwijapte@gmail.com
Despite shifts in society, technology, and environment, rock art has continued as an expressive medium in many regions, illustrating a remarkable continuity of cultural traditions. Modern Indigenous groups in India, Australia, Africa, and North America maintain traditions of rock painting and engraving, connecting contemporary practices with ancient heritage. This continuity offers insights into cultural transmission and adaptation, where symbols, motifs, and narratives evolve but retain their links to early origins. The continuity of these themes over millennia suggests deeply rooted beliefs and practices. Rock art serves as a cultural bridge, linking ancient and contemporary societies. This session brings together scholars, researchers, students, Indigenous peoples, and others interested in rock art research, focusing on its antiquity, continuity, and cognitive and behavioural approaches.
Papers:
Surveying the Landscape of Konkan Geoglyphs: Documentation, Antiquity and Correlation
Divyansh Kumar Sinha, Rhutvij Apte, Tarkik Khatu, Sneha Dabadgaon, Madhusudhan Padebettu, Renuka Joshi, Raghunath Bokil, Sudhir Risbud, Dhananjay Marathe, Konkan Geoglyphs & Heritage Research Centre, Ratnagiri, IITM Pravartak Technologies Foundation, IIT Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
The Indian subcontinent, with its very long coastline, has played a crucial role in the settlements of different species and populations from different periods, which can be understood by the different phases of archaeological records being identified. The coastal rim, which is believed to have been one of the major routes for the dispersal of the modern human population out of Africa and extending in the Indian subcontinent, following the Southern dispersal route theory suggests that dispersal and migration towards the South has been doubtful due to the paucity of substantial evidence. This paucity in the Konkan region is now being redressed by new evidence of geoglyphs and associated archaeological evidence found in the region. New evidence of lithic artefacts identified near these geoglyph sites, which typologically belong to the middle Palaeolithic and microlithic assemblage, gives an idea about human dispersal during different cultural phases in the region. This paper thus focuses on the prehistoric assemblage through lithic artefacts identified from geoglyphs sites which were earlier documented and identified in the Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg district of Maharashtra, to understand the diversity in tool production. Though these lithic artefacts are found through surface exposure and not from the stratified deposit, due to the absence of soil deposit on the plateau, these are the only archaeological remains found in the vicinity of these carvings. Thus, these can be correlated and considered as an archaeological continuity through different phases of Konkan.
Animal Representations in the Bhimbetka Rock Shelters, Madhya Pradesh, India: Continuity, Transformation, and Cultural Significance from the Palaeolithic to the Historic Period
Nibedita Naskar, A.I.H.C and Archaeology Dept, Deccan Collage Post-Graduate and Research Institute, Pune, Maharashtra, India
Tanmoy Howladar, AIHC and Archaeology Dept, Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
The rock art of Bhimbetka, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Madhya Pradesh, India, provides a unique record of the evolving significance of animals in human life from the Upper Palaeolithic to the Historic period. With over 750 rock shelters, Bhimbetka has more than 100 feature paintings that span nine phases grouped into three broad cultural periods: Mesolithic (Phases I–V), Chalcolithic (Phase VI), and Historic (Phases VII–IX). Scholars suggest that some paintings may date back to 40,000 BCE or earlier, marking Bhimbetka as one of South Asia’s earliest repositories of art. Animal representations dominate the early phases, reflecting the critical role of wild fauna such as gaur, deer, elephants, and wild boars in the lives of hunter-gatherer communities. These depictions illustrate hunting, foraging, and ritualistic practices, showcasing the reliance on and reverence for animals during the Mesolithic period. In contrast, the Chalcolithic phase introduces scenes indicating domestication and the integration of animals into early agricultural practices, symbolising a transformative period in human-animal relationships. By the Historic period, the prominence of animal figures diminished, replaced by human-centric motifs such as processions, warriors, and religious symbols, reflecting the socio-cultural and spiritual shifts of a sedentary and increasingly organised civilisation. The stylistic overlap and layering of paintings across periods highlight continuity and changes in artistic and cultural expressions. This paper attempts to analyse the representation of animals across these phases and their significance in understanding the socio-economic, symbolic, and other roles animals played in human societies.
The Legacy of East African Rock Art in Kenya, Ethiopia and Tanzania: Visualising its Purpose and Meaning for Sustainable Tourism and Heritage Management
Prof. Dr G. Kupperam, Honorary Professor, History, International Relations and Social Sciences, Centre for Post Graduate Studies and Examinations, Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kakamega, Kenya; Vadapalani, Chennai, India
This paper surveys the author’s field research for three decades in the Rift Valley of East Africa, known for its widespread distribution of geometric rock art whose figurative tradition is much more localised. Rock art with multiple styles reveals cattle herding communities and early hunter-gatherer societies, and rock art sites with red pigment bear elongated human figures connoting ancestral spirits. Rock art in Kenya, Tanzania, and Ethiopia has yet to be explored and researched. Pastoralist paintings dating between 3500 and 1500 years before the advent of the Bantus are scarce, but unique only for the Rift Valley, with no parallel and allied sites found in Southern Africa, with only a few known sites in Kenya, Tanzania, and Ethiopia. This paper discusses a blueprint for community conservation and management awareness programs, with the participation and education of the multifarious stakeholders in protecting the art ensuring the survival of the rock paintings for future generations. Sustainable protection and management have become mandatory.
Recently Explored Rock Art Sites from Domini Pahari in Chandauli District, Uttar Pradesh
Rinkoo Gupta, Research Scholar, C.M.P. Degree College, Prayagraj, University of Allahabad, India
The term rock art refers to images engraved or painted on natural rock surfaces, such as cave walls, and large boulders. Rock art, which dates back thousands of years ago, is one of the oldest forms of human expression and is found throughout the world. It is one of the most important sources for understanding the social, cultural and religious life of people. The present study area comes under the Chandauli district of Uttar Pradesh, India. Many scholars from different universities and institutions have extensively explored this area. Evidence from a large number of archaeological sites identified and explored in the region indicate that the Chandauli district witnessed a very long duration of human evolution, from Palaeolithic times to the present. Apart from these sites, a number of rock art sites are also located in Kaimur range of Chandauli. These rock shelters were painted by people belonging to different cultural stages of subsistence economy, from hunting-gathering to the beginning of agriculture, and up until modern times. The present paper is based on recent fieldwork and newly discovered rock art sites, known as Aamchua Pahari, Ghurhupur Pahari, Kaudihar khas, Dhannipur and Kapisha Pahari, that are located near Mubarakpur (local village name) in Chakiya block of Chandauli district, Uttar Pradesh.
Whispers of the Past: Hand Stencils in Indian Rock Art
Himanshu Moreshwar Mahajan, Dept of Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology, Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Nagpur, India
Prabash Sahu, Prof., Dept of Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology, Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Nagpur, India
Rock art is a visual art form with a rich historical tradition, and offers invaluable insights into human culture. Handprints, or the imprints of hands-on rock shelter walls using colours, come in various forms: positive, negative, stylised, and engraved. Predominantly executed in shades of red, orange and yellow, handprints represent a living tradition still practiced by certain communities in India. The widespread occurrence of these motifs across time and geography in numerous countries suggests their significant socio-ritualistic importance, likely involving shared aspects of creation and use. Hand and foot motifs, archetypal forms of rock art expression, exhibit global prevalence and a long-standing presence in the history of human artistic expression. Hand stencils are still practiced in various parts of the Indian subcontinent. In Maharashtra, during the festival of ‘Pola’ (celebrating farmers), handprints are used to decorate the bulls. Similarly, during Govardhan Puja, celebrated during Diwali, handprints are applied to decorate cows, buffaloes, and oxen. Furthermore, in many parts of India, the bride’s handprints are incorporated into wedding ceremonies. This paper focuses on analysing palm impressions observed at Indian rock art sites.
A Rare Scene of Human Hematophagy in Rock Art of Kaimur, Uttar Pradesh, India
Dr Neelam Singh, Assistant Prof., Indian Institute of Heritage, Noida, India
Dr Sachin Kumar Tewari, Assistant Prof., Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
The act of killing a human for the purpose of a ritual and religious activity or as a part of belief system can be placed under the topic of human sacrifice. It used to be part of some societies and cultures throughout the world and generally acted for the welfare of communities by pleasing gods and goddesses. As a part of religious act, it wasn’t considered a murder or loss of life, although later it was condemned in many ancient scriptures. Now it is considered as an act of murder and totally banned. The present paper will discuss such a scene depicted in the rock shelter of Kauva-khoh, district Sonbhadra, Uttar Pradesh. The scene not only depicts the killing, but also the drinking of blood from human heads by another human, which is called human hematophagy. The depiction is so clear even on the bare rock surface that some may shudder. The paper deals with local mythology, ethnography and literature to understand the meaning of this depiction and also studies the correlation of this depiction with other paintings in the same shelter.
Rock Engravings on the Western Ghat of the Indian Subcontinent (Goa Petroglyphs)
Vaishali A. Chavan
D. P. Sharma, Former Director, Kala Bhavan, Banaras Hindu University, India
India, a nation with footprints of prehistory and antiquity, continued until today. The best example of rock art is shown in Bhimbetka, Pachmarhi in Madhya Pradesh. The huge cluster of more than 6214 motifs is painted in the 642 caves or shelters. Rock art in India is not only in painting form but can also be found on the plateaux of laterite in carving form where thousands of figurines have been carved, sculpted, scooped, bruised, and etched. The mesmerising designs of various fauna, humans, anthropomorphic figures, geometrical designs, signs, symbols, and mysterious figures tell prehistoric stories and historical eras. Those are truly like a library. The western ghat of the Indian subcontinent from Gujrat to Kerala has enormous rock carvings called petroglyphs or geoglyphs that are present and express thoughts, emotions, activities, and intellect. The way they depict X-ray figures, arrow wound marks on bulls, and mother goddesses delivering babies with placenta and child shows the combination of art, keen observation, and intellect. The difference is seen in the depiction of Goa’s petroglyph and the Konkan strip of Maharashtra.
Rock Paintings of Hadoti Region, Rajasthan, India
Prof. Devi Prasad Tewari, Retired Professor, Dept of Ancient Indian History & Archaeology, University of Lucknow, India
Hadoti is the name of a region of south-eastern Rajasthan comprising the four districts of Kota, Baran, Jhalawar and Bundi. More than 100 rock shelters have been identified in the Hadoti region. Some of the notable sites are Chattaneshwar Mahadeva, Dara, Kapildhara, Kanyadah, Sorsan, Teepanya Mahadeva ghati, Aamgiri nala, Geparnath, Gadariya Mahadeva, Jawahar sagar dam, Chamari nala, Aamjhiri Nala, Kalaji kui, Singhanpur vikramkhol, Aamsiri, Kewaria, Hathiatol, Golpur, Jalindri, Bhimlat etc. Hunting scenes, dance scenes, animals like deer, ox, cow, dog, pig, buffalo, sheep-goat, lion, horse, and birds along with geometric designs, different types of flowers, different types of weapons, rivers, men and women, hand prints, etc. are depicted. Superimpositions are frequently found. These motifs and figures are made mostly in red ochre, while green, dark brown, black and white colours are also used.
Although lithic tools like Acheulean hand-axes, scrapers, cleavers, flakes, ostrich egg shells and microliths are found in the region, most of the rock paintings belong to the Mesolithic period. The tradition continued through the Chalcolithic to the historical period.
Rock Art of North-Eastern Chhotanagpur Plateau—Some Selected Symbols
Shubham Saurabh, Research Fellow, Dept of Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology, Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, Nalanda, Bihar
Rock art is the visual representation of the creative genius of our ancestors. It acts as a time capsule that embraces its makers’ beliefs, techniques, technology, culture and society. It is a form of human expression (emotion) and cognition that has been carried out through generations. The study area lies in the Jamui Hill Ranges, located in the Jamui district of Bihar. The rock paintings found here are mainly comprised of geometric and non-geometric designs, animal figures, and some grid patterns and symbols. Santhal, Khairwar and Yadava are the prominent ethnic groups that live in the vicinity of the rock shelters and still practice the tradition of painting on their houses during the Sohrai festival. The rock art acts as a window into the symbolic world of past communities in the Chhotanagpur plateau region. This paper discusses the pictographs found in Jamui and examines the painted motifs, their compositions and their possible meanings through the help of ethnographic parallels. The research incorporates insights from tribal folklore, oral traditions, and anthropological studies to decode certain symbols and have an understanding of the broader cultural continuum.
Tracing Cultural Landscapes: Evidence of Living Rock Art Tradition in Kadamakuttai, Tamil Nadu, India
Sudharshan R., Dept of Ancient History and Archaeology, University of Madras, India
Rock art, including pictographs, petroglyphs, and cupules, serves as a significant archaeological resource spanning from the Late Palaeolithic to the modern period, with a global distribution. These artistic expressions provide valuable insights into socio-economic conditions, subsistence patterns, regional environments, religious beliefs, wildlife interactions, and cultural symbolism.
This study focuses on the rock shelter in Kadamakuttai village, Krishnagiri district, Tamil Nadu, featuring an elephant painting in white pigment. Through archaeological exploration, detailed documentation of the rock painting, and ethnographic engagement with local communities, this research examines the relationship between people, culture, and the landscape. The investigation reveals that the rock shelter is situated along the migration route of elephants moving between the Krishnagiri and Dharmapuri forest ranges. Furthermore, the study highlights the connection between the living rock art tradition, elephant migration, and the local harvest festival, emphasising the enduring cultural significance of this rock art in the community.
Unveiling the Past: The Recent Discovery of Rock Art in Palawan, Philippines
Jun G. Cayron, independent researcher
The recent discovery of rock art in Palawan, Philippines, represents a significant contribution to understanding the region’s prehistoric cultural landscape. These ancient artworks, found in various caves across the island, provide invaluable insights into the symbolic and artistic expressions of early human societies in the Philippines. The pictographs showcases a rich blend of human figures, animals, and abstract motifs that offer a glimpse into the spiritual, social, and environmental interactions of prehistoric Filipinos. This discovery deepens our knowledge of the island’s role in the broader context of Southeast Asian prehistory, emphasising the importance of Palawan as a centre of early human creativity and cultural development in the region.
Pursuing Patterns in Paintings: A Multidimensional Approach to Understanding the Rock Art Record in the Central Narmada Valley, India
Parth R. Chauhan, Rajesh Poojari, Nupur Tiwar, IISER Mohali, India
The Indian Subcontinent preserves a rich record of rock art in the form of engravings, etchings, bruisings and paintings found in diverse contexts such as rock shelters, caves, bedrock and open-air laterite surfaces. Although this record has been known for over a century, most studies have been restricted to the reporting of new sites and/or descriptions and counts of individual themes in the images. Very few studies have gone beyond these methods; exceptions include scientific analyses of archaeological pigments, studies of overlapping patterns and experimental replication of paintings, engravings and/or cupule marks. The present study focuses on the rich and dynamic rock art record of the central Narmada Valley, specifically along the front zones of the Vindhyan and Gondwana ranges of hills. We apply different analytical methods and attempt to identify potential patterns in dimensional, spatial, contextual and geographic attributes within the paintings. We also propose potential factors and explanations for the geographic locations of specific painting themes and styles in this region.
Indian Rock Art: A Concise Study of the Bundi Region in Rajasthan
Dr Ishwar Dan, Assistant Professor, Satyawati College, University of Delhi, India
Vikram Raj, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi, IndiaRock art, found in numerous natural caves and rock shelters across India, is widely associated with Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic societies. The painted and engraved surfaces of caves, rocks, and boulders showcase a diverse range of themes and stylistic elements, making Indian rock art remarkable for its scale, vibrancy, and richness. One of the largest collections of rock paintings in India is located in Bundi, Rajasthan. These paintings depict various aspects of social, cultural, religious, and economic life, illustrating the continuous evolution of humankind. Rock Art depicts hunting, daily life of human as well as depictions of animals such as bison, deer, and tigers. Dating back approximately 15,000 years, these artworks provide substantial evidence of early human habitation in the Bundi region. There is evidence of ongoing artistic traditions among the tribal communities residing in Rajasthan’s forested areas, reflecting a connection to ancient rock art styles. These archaeological sites have been categorised chronologically based on the themes of the paintings found in different rock shelters, along with artefacts from the surrounding region. Given recent advancements in the scientific study of rock art in India and worldwide, this paper presents and analyses newly discovered rock art in the Bundi region.
The Feminine and the Masculine in Indian Rock Art: Perspectives from Gender and Continuity
Ruman Banerjee, Assistant Professor. Dept of History, Pondicherry University, India
Indian rock art, particularly from Central India, portrays many feminine and masculine images. These images or paintings depict various cultures in different contexts and settings. Some unique motifs and engravings represent several different social roles and periods from the remote prehistory to the early historic times. The themes, superimpositions, techniques of execution, colour schemes, use of space, location of the rock shelters and the paintings in them and the local environment all provide specific information about the feminine and masculine qualities and their interaction, co-dependence and evolution. In this research, I would like to elucidate men’s and women’s roles in ancient societies across space and time, tracing the continuity and implications via the rock art. Hunter-gatherers, pastoralists, horticulturalists, agriculturalists and the megalithic people had specific gender roles in their respective societies. It is intriguing to locate several such pieces of evidence from the Indian rock art corpora strewn across the geographies. Hunting-gathering, dancing, honey collection, worshipping, battling, food preparing and several other activities are some of the records of the division of labour, as evidenced by rock art. Moreover, several engravings have recently been found in some regions of India that symbolise the sex-gender aspects among past societies that collectively practised and made such art. Therefore, I envisage unravelling some of the complexities and attempting to provide a few clues to understand these paintings and engravings from a gendered perspective.
An Ethno-archaeological Perspective of Rock Art Tradition amongst the Central Indian Gond Community
Dr Kantikumar A. Pawar, General Secretary, VARASA-Association of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology, Former Asst. Professor, Deccan College PGRI, Pune
The Upper Tapi Basin region in central India has revealed interesting evidence of rock art, where a number of engravings and paintings on rock shelters have been found on the panels of rock shelters with associated material culture. It has been observed that some symbolic traditions are continued in the Gond tribals of the Dharul Village, among which some ethnographic evidence has been observed inside the rock shelters. Information given by the head of the Gond tribe reveals that they used to worship some deities in a rock shelter every year after summer. The symbols found in rock-shelters bear much similarity with the one being done by the Gonds today named as ‘Godhani’, suggesting continuity in traditions. During the process of the depiction of this above mentioned symbol, these tribals continue a ritualistic process, which includes shamanism and some rural medical treatment at the end. The present paper focuses on the brief assessment of the current works and throws light on the recent findings of rock art and ritualistic tradition depicted on rock shelters by the Gond tribe of this region, as well as other associated findings in the Dharul village of Central India and its vicinity.