Format: Paper presentations with discussion
Convenors:
Kaushik Gangopadhyay
Department of Archaeology, University of Calcutta, India
kgarch@caluniv.ac.in
Coline Lefrancq
Research Fellow, CNRS (National Centre of Scientific Research), France; ArScAn: Archéologie de l’Asie centrale/Archaeology of Central Asia
coline.lefrancq@cnrs.fr
Varada Khaladkar
University of Calcutta; Independent Researcher, India
varada.khaladkar@gmail.com
This session will examine approaches to landscape archaeology in South Asia from the Neolithic to the medieval period, focusing on the enduring aspects of landscapes in the past as gleaned through archaeological remains. The South Asian sub-continent—presently comprised of several nation states—has immense spatial breadth and temporal depth going back to the early dawn of hominin culture as early as two million years BP. South Asia is also home to one of the oldest bronze age civilizations of the world, namely the Harappan civilization (4th millennium BCE), and numerous early farming communities were established in different ecological zones of the sub-continent. Located in the transitional period between proto and early history, Iron age ‘megalithic’ cultures are found in almost all regions of the sub-continent. The Early Historical (circa 600 BCE to 600 CE) and Medieval periods (circa 600 CE to 1200 CE for the so-called Early Medieval period; circa 1200 CE to 1526 CE for the so-called Late Medieval period) proceed with increasing complexities, engaging with urban landscapes coexisting with rural landscapes. However, despite these complexities, approaches in archaeological investigation continue to be largely culture-historical (i.e. defining a cultural phase based on material remains and studying ‘evolutionary sequences’) and site centric. We argue that there exists a tremendous scope to adopt a ‘landscape’ approach in South Asian archaeology. Even if landscape studies have increased during the last decade, there are still relatively few archaeological examples. This session will include the following broad topics:
a. Theoretical trends in landscape archaeology of South Asia.
b. Landscape archaeology of early farming communities (Neolithic to the Iron age)
c. Landscape archaeology and the early historical and Medieval periods in South Asia.
Papers:
Beyond the Mines: Chalcolithic Pattern of Settlement along the Khetri belt
Esha Prasad, Symbiosis School for Liberal Arts, Symbiosis International (Deemed University)
The paper investigates the relationship between archaeological settlement, geographical environments, and human agency in and around the Khetri belt during the Chalcolithic period. A landscape approach was employed to understand settlement patterns, which questions the overemphasis on the Khetri copper mines as the major criterion for chalcolithic settlements. Given the region’s arid environment, restricted access to water and arable land, and the presence of mineral resources like copper, understanding the rationale behind settlement location is crucial. This paper aims to explore the relationship between settlements, their locations across different landscapes, and their proximity to natural resources. Using GIS, the diverse landscapes utilised by ancient people in this area, along with the laws of settlement, will be discussed. GIS as a tool further helped in exploring ideas such as elevation, slope, proximity to natural resources, visibility, protection etc., which are some of the basic requirements for settlements. The result of the paper challenges the prior understanding that copper mines were the deciding factor for the chalcolithic settlements.
Enduring Monuments and Evolving Landscapes: Memories and Legends of Megaliths in Tamil Region, South India
Darsana SB, Assistant Professor, Dept of History, Holy Cross College, Tamil Nadu, India
The megaliths are the burial monuments built to commemorate the dead in the Iron Age–Early Historic period, generally dated between 1300 BCE and 300 CE. The megalithic tradition from the Iron Age also continued to exist in the early historical period. Many types of megalithic burials are found in the Tamil region of southern India. Though many scholars have worked on these burial monuments, one aspect that received less attention is the landscape of the burials. For the megalithic burials in the Tamil region, we have a set of contemporary Tamil texts (Sangam Literature) that vividly describe the burial landscape in the early historic period. Over a period of time, these burials and the landscape around them have undergone changes and contemporary people viewed the burials from different perspectives. The medieval inscriptions, the European archival records, and the people’s perceptions in the present day throw light on the nature of the burials and their landscape. This paper attempts to look at the burials and the landscape around them with varied interpretations that were constructed by the people in different periods. It aims to study how the landscape evolved around the burials, how legends were associated with them, and memories are created and preserved.
Revisiting Ashokan Rock Edict Sites in Andhra Pradesh: Geo-Cultural Dynamics and Historical Continuities
Deepak Pal, Dept of History and Archaeology, Central University of Karnataka, Kalaburagi, India
Ashokan rock edicts (258 BCE) are considered a benchmark period for the beginning of Early-Historic culture (300 BCE- 500 CE) in Southern India. Until now, 11 Ashokan rock edict locations have been discovered in the border states of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka (south India). These locations are engraved with the Major, Minor, and Kalinga versions of rock edicts. This paper focuses on understanding the geo-cultural landscapes associated with the edict sites of Erragudi/Jonnagiri and Rajulamandagiri in Andhra Pradesh to examine the occupational developments from the pre-Ashokan edicts to the early historic phase. Although the rock edict sites are 30 km apart, they can be subdivided based on landscape features and cultural material. The Earragudi rock edict site exists on a low range of dyke swarm hill, locally known as Yenakonda or Nallayenakonda (black elephant hillock). A preliminary survey of the Earragudi hills yields evidence of water storage points, settlement terraces, and the circular arrangement of boulders (Megalithic circle?), which suggests the use of the site before the presence of the Ashokan rock edict. However, the Rajulamandagiri rock edict complex site is surrounded by granitic formations of tors/knobs. The archaeological features in the edict complex site and environs suggest cultural continuity from the Neolithic to the medieval period. In addition, several temples of the late Early-Historic to medieval period and the inscriptions detailing tax-free land grants signify a continuous human involvement in the landscape. Having such a range of archaeological and cultural potentialities calls for a greater understanding of the Ashokan rock edict sites within the framework of sub-regional developmental studies. With this approach, this paper examines landscape archaeology in the cultural development of Early-Historic and medieval transitions in the trajectory of the Ashokan rock edicts, leading to through the light on the landscaping of early urbanisation.
Sacred Horizons, Timeless Narratives: Exploring Cultural Landscapes of the Nalanda Hinterland
Sharmistha Chatterjee, Assistant Professor, Dept of History, Srikrishna College, University of Kalyani, India
The Nalanda monastic complex in southern Bihar was a renowned monastic and scholastic establishment, revered internationally for its Buddhist heritage and attracting pilgrims and scholars worldwide. The surrounding hinterland of Nalanda features lesser-known monasteries and structural remains, warranting more rigorous exploration. Archaeological evidence in the region reveals an evolutionary pattern of site development and landscape transformation.
A careful review of the region’s environmental history highlights sophisticated water management systems, diverse subsistence strategies, and standardised healthcare practices that contributed to the complex’s global renown. This paper adopts a landscape approach to understanding the hinterland, integrating environmental parameters with heritage legacies. Further, with an ethnographic lens, I examine how local communities derive meaning from the ‘past’ and engage in preserving the environment and perpetuating the region’s cultural heritage. The research reveals that the heritage is deeply ingrained in the daily lives of local communities, who view it as an integral part of their identity, tradition, and spirituality. Despite centuries of transformation, the complex remains a vital symbol of Buddhist scholarship, spirituality, and cultural heritage, continuing to inspire and influence Buddhist communities worldwide.
Quarries of Faith: Raw Material Selection and Quarry Pattern in the Sacred Landscape of the Bhojeshwar Temple
Satyam Bharti, Research Scholar, Dept Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Jose Tom Rapheal, Assistant Prof., Dept Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Pratik Pandey, Research Scholar, Dept Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, India
Manish Kumar Rai, Research Scholar, Dept of Neurology IMS, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Neha Singh, Dept Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
The Bhojeshwar Temple in Madhya Pradesh, India, stands as a remarkable testament to the architectural ingenuity and religious vision of King Bhoj of the Paramara dynasty. The unfinished temple leaves a greater scope to understand the process of the temple building activity conceived by Raja Bhoj, which is an unprecedented project by any rules of the dynasty. This study investigates the quarrying patterns, techniques and raw material selection that shaped this sacred monument. The temple is renowned for its unfinished grandeur and the massive shivalinga housed within its intricately carved sanctum. By analysing quarry sites, tool marks, and the properties of the stone used, the research highlights the technological and logistical expertise involved in sourcing and transporting materials for the temple’s construction.
The study further examines the spatial organisation of the temple complex and its alignment with the surrounding landscape, emphasising its integration into the sacred geography and its role in facilitating ritual practices, including pilgrimage and offerings. By contextualising the temple’s architectural design within the broader religious and cultural framework of medieval India, the research explores the interplay between material choices, construction techniques, and the cultural identity of the region.
Through a multidisciplinary approach combining archaeological survey, architectural analysis, and geospatial data, this study underscores the dynamic relationship between quarrying practices, raw material selection, and the sacred landscape of the Bhojeshwar Temple, offering insights into its enduring spiritual and cultural legacy.
Maa Sitala and Maladies: Transcorporeality and Pox in Medieval Bengal Landscapes
Hrishita Ghosh, Dept of Anthropology-Archaeology track, Stanford University, USA
Pravat Roy, Dept of Archaeology, University of Calcutta (Alipur Campus), India
The pathological patterning of ecological spaces often led to the formation of cognitive landscapes that are reflected through the persistent existence of super-human entities. In most parts of the northern and central Indian sub-continent, belief systems associate physiological human conditions with “more-than-human” entities. Blurring the boundaries between physical and metaphysical bases of human mortality, these beliefs have fuelled the psychological formation of several regional divinities, bridging the gap between the popularly assumed causes of infectious diseases and their corresponding symptoms. In this paper, we discuss the “trascorporeal” existence of Sitala and her correlation with the smallpox epidemic in South Asia by studying the temple-based sculptures of the deity, as well as the scroll painting traditions of south-western Bengal, that continue to orally narrate her stories, called Sitala Mangal. By concentrating on the districts of Bankura and Paschim Medinipur, this paper attempts a re-construction of a disease-based landscape as it evolved between the eighteenth to the twenty first century. It adapts a post-humanist theoretical framework and ethnoarchaeological field-based studies to delve into the liminality of relations between humans and non-humans as they continue to re-negotiate the interrelationships between individual physiology and social beliefs and consequently patterning the landscape of the region.
The Megalithic Phase of Kerala: A Study of the Umbrella Stones
Dr V.P. Devadas, Associate Professor (Retd), Dept of History, N.S.S College (Affiliated to Calicut University, Kerala, India
In Kerala, several hundreds of megalithic sites were discovered by British officials, archaeologists and private persons who were fascinated by Indian culture. These Iron Age proto-historic monuments attracted many people from various walks of life and aroused their curiosity. The first published article on the megaliths appeared in the writings of J. Babington (Description of the Pandoo Coolies of Malabar 1823). The most distinctive type of megalithic monument is the umbrella stone. This mushroom-shaped megalithic tomb is mainly confined to the Malabar region of Kerala. As in all other cultural contexts, geological factors meant much for the umbrella stone builders. Geology, particularly the petrography of Kerala, wields considerable influence on the life pattern of the megalithic people. Moreover, the location and shape of the tombs are determined by geological, ecological and their ritualistic associations throw light on the sociocultural life of the megalithic people. Many of the umbrella stones are situated in a definite pattern on the surface of the Earth. They exhibit a surprising level of astronomical, mathematical and geophysical information. These tombs also reveal a sound engineering skills. Megalithic folk were probably the earliest people to utilise laterite for the construction of burial tombs.
Rivers and Life: Understanding the Archaeological Landscape in the Dynamic Landforms of Deltaic and Coastal West Bengal, India
Priyank Pravin Patel, Assistant Professor, Dept of Geography, Presidency University, India
Snehadip Saha, Junior Research Fellow, DST, Dept of Archaeology, University of Calcutta, India
Supriyo Kumar Das, Assistant Professor, Dept of Geology, Presidency University, India
Kaushik Gangopadhyay, Assistant Professor. Dept of Archaeology, University of Calcutta, India
Coastal Bengal, particularly the Gangetic Delta, has a long history of human settlement, and cultural evolution, shaped by the dynamic interplay of environmental factors. This study adopts landscape-based approach to examine archaeological sites in coastal Bengal, highlighting how natural factors such as riverine systems, climatic events, and monsoonal cycles influenced settlement patterns in the prehistoric and historical periods. The region’s dynamic landforms, particularly in coastal West Bengal, present significant challenges for reconstructing past landscapes.
This research uses remote-sensing techniques to analyse landscape transformations over time, particularly changes in the riparian and coastal environments that would have influenced settlement location and connectivity. Differences between past and present geomorphological settings necessitate understanding historical landform development to contextualise archaeological sites effectively. Many sites in the region, supported by archaeological and textual evidence, attained urban status, i.e. ports and cities, underscoring the importance of a holistic perspective on landform dynamics for interpreting the region’s archaeological landscape.
For the first time, this study applies well-established remote-sensing techniques and datasets to assess the archaeology of coastal Bengal. As a preliminary report, it highlights the potential of these methods to provide deeper insights into the evolving landscapes of coastal Bengal and their implications for archaeological interpretations.
Reassessing the Cultural Sequence of Pattanam (Southern India) Stratigraphy: A Systematic Depth-Wise Analysis of Trench Data
Uthara B., Dept of History, Central University of Tamil Nadu, India
Dr Ratheesh Kumar R.T., Assistant Professor, Dept of Marine Geology and Geophysics, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Ernakulam, India
Dr Pranjal Garg, Assistant Professor, Dept of History, Central University of Tamil Nadu, India
Pattanam is a multicultural archaeological site located on India’s southwestern coast, where significant material culture has been documented within the 4 metre deep sedimentary archive through excavations. We compiled published records detailing the depth-wise distribution of various artefacts obtained, including metal objects, stone and glass artefacts, pot sherds of both Indian and non-Indian origin, botanical remains, and radiocarbon (C14) dates from multiple trenches. Our systematic analysis of artefact frequency and depth distribution reveals a higher concentration between depths of 1.7 to 3.0 metres, indicating a peak in cultural settlement within this stratigraphic layer. Stratigraphic examinations indicate that the strata containing significant material culture are characterised by a sand-rich composition. In contrast, the sediments above this layer exhibit an increasing concentration of clay and silt fractions. The available C14 dates indicate that the layers with active cultural records predominantly date to approximately 2100 to 2500 years BP, whereas the overlying stratum yield relatively younger ages of less than 2000 years BP. These findings suggest a correlation between settlement patterns and the geological setting of Pattanam, indicating that the decline in the peak phase of the early historic settlement was marked by a compositional change in the sediments, likely occurring after approximately 2100 years BP.
The Intertwined Connection Between the Suburban Sites of Mahasthangarh in Bangladesh and the Environment: How to Deal with a ‘Biased’ Landscape
Coline Lefrancq, CNRS UMR 7041, Achéologies et Sciences de l’Antiquité – Equipe Asie Centrale, France
Antoine Darchambeau, EVEHA International, France
Yohan Chabot, GéoArchEon and and Laboratoire de Géographie Physique, Environnements Quaternaires et Actuels, UMR CNRS 859, France
Damien Arhan, Laboratoire de Géographie Physique, Environnements Quaternaires et Actuels, UMR CNRS 8591, France
Vincent Lefèvre, Prof. Sorbonne Université, France
Naheed Sultana, Regional Director of Comilla Division, Dept of Archaeology, Bangladesh
Mahasthangarh is located in the northwestern part of Bangladesh, in the Rajshahi district. Built on a small terrasse known as the Barind tract overlooking the Karatoya River, this fortified site is surrounded by a roughly rectangular rampart about 1.5 km long by 1 km and made of baked bricks. This enclosure wall dates from the 4th-3rd c. BCE and its outline never changed over time, despite several repairs. Thanks to the excavations conducted within the citadel sporadically for almost 150 years, and then systematically over the last 30 years by the Joint Bangladeshi-French Archaeological Mission of Mahasthangarh, we know that the inner-wall site was occupied continuously from at least the 4th c. BCE until at least the 15th c. CE, with phases of dynamism and downturns in building activity. Outside the citadel, archaeologists have identified around 100 suburban sites so far. Those sites are spread all around the fortification and date from different chronological periods. This paper aims at (i) introducing those sites; (ii) discussing possible cultural and environmental factors which affected the choice of their location; (iii) underlining surveying issues and limitations faced nowadays by archaeologists in a densely anthropised landscape.
Past in the Past: interactions. Between People and the Archaeological Record in the Early Deccan, India
Varada Khaladkar, University of Calcutta; Independent Researcher, India
Landscape approaches in south Asian archaeology largely centre on the modern understanding of the past landscape contexts and the archaeological record located within. However, it is rarely examined if and how the past communities were aware of the archaeological record and the details of their engagement with it are seldom looked into. The present paper attempts to delve into two early medieval texts (c. 13th century CE), viz. Chikurde Copperplate inscription and Bhima-Mahatmya, as major representations of how archaeological records were perceived, understood and engaged with by past populations in western Deccan. The study reveals that such interactions were neither uniform in nature, nor inclusive of all the kinds of archaeological records. Multiple factors such as locations and morphology, as well as their place in the larger scheme of the functioning of the settlements, decided the nature of these interactions. These analyses also inform us about the antiquity of the current community perceptions and interactions with the archaeological records by the local rural populations.
Controlling Landscapes and Erasing Capitals: Remote Sensing Bahmani’s Firozabad – A Short-Lived Mediaeval Urban Landscape in South India
Muhammed Aslam TC and Dr Abdul Majid, Dept of History and Archaeology, School of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Central University of Karnataka, Kalaburagi, Karnataka, India
This study utilises multi-temporal satellite remote sensing to investigate the earliest planned capital of Deccan, Firozabad in Karnataka. Building on Daniel Contreras’s work on the archaeology of human-environment interactions, we examine how the site embodied both Bahmani imperial aspirations and environmental vulnerabilities. Located on the bank of river Bhima, it served as both a strategic military outpost to control the arable lands of Raichur Doab and a cosmopolitan royal complex with ethnically segregated quarters. Despite its ephemeral prominence, the urban layout exposes sophisticated planning such as a riverside royal palace zone, underground aqueducts, and organised bazaars, while the river acted as a natural moat. Hydrological modelling correlates Bhima River’s flood history with the theories of the site’s abandonment, while spatial patterns show the hierarchal divisions in urban planning. The walled pathway system connecting all fort gates, along with peripheral mounds of the submerged garrisons demonstrate methods of controlled mobility and spatial governance. Though centuries of fluvial dynamics and agricultural encroachments have severely affected the site, this approach reveals how medieval urban landscapes encode power structures even after obsolescence.