Format: Paper presentations with discussion
Convenors:
Akash Srinivas, Centre for Interdisciplinary Archaeological Research, Ashoka University, Sonipat, India
akashsrinivas123@gmail.com
Andrea Dominique Cosalan, School of Archaeology, University of the Philippines-Diliman, Philippines
amcosalan@up.edu.ph
Yezad Pardiwalla, Palaeo-Arch Lab, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Mohali, India
yezad.791@gmail.com
The incomplete and static nature of the archaeological record loses many aspects of the complex past, sometimes leading to its misunderstood or simplistic recreation. While emphasis lies in studying the past to better understand and situate our present, the inverse is also readily applicable, especially since the past is likely to have been as complicated as the present is. We can attempt to model and reconstruct the often-invisible dynamic forces and processes of the past, and obtain a nuanced understanding of these social processes, by studying and undertaking various controlled studies in contemporary contexts and detailed observations of living traditions and practices. These processes, responsible either for the creation or preservation of the archaeological record, as seen today, help us situate the static archaeological record within the dynamic socio-environmental and cultural context of their manufacture, use, discard and preservation, eventually resulting in their recovery by archaeologists.
This session seeks contributions that situate themselves within the range of actualistic, experimental, and ethnographic studies that can strengthen our understanding of the archaeological record. These can range from ethnographic accounts of tool-use and material culture; functional analyses; studies related to site formation processes; modern-day reconstructions of cultural elements geared towards addressing archaeological inquiries; and innovations in the archaeological sciences that can better refine experimental studies. We also invite practitioners to discuss and suggest best practices for undertaking such, as well as the ethical and moral implications involved. Through this session, we hope to bring together perspectives from all over the world to better understand and situate modern-day analogues within the realm of archaeological data, thus, building bridges, across time and space.
Papers:
Saving the Salt, Saving the Pot? The Curious Case of Asin Tibuok and Pottery Making in Alburquerque, Bohol, Philippines
Rhayan Gatbonton Melendres, University of the Philippines Diliman Extension Program, Pampanga; University of the Philippines School of Archaeology, Diliman, Quezon City
Many Indigenous food traditions are becoming extinct worldwide. One example of an endangered heritage food is the Asin Tibuok of Alburquerque, Bohol, Philippines. Asin Tibuok is a Bisayan term that means whole or solid salt. It is popularly known as dinosaur egg and is the rarest, most expensive artisanal salt in the Philippines. Creating it is labour intensive, wherein salt farmers or asinderos soak coconut husks in the sea for three months and then chop them into small pieces before burning them into ash for five straight days and nights. The ash is then collected and placed on a giant funnel where new seawater is poured into it. The seawater is then collected and cooked in a small ceramic pot until it becomes salt. This paper will examine the relationship between traditional salt and pottery making in Alburquerque, Bohol. I conducted this research through interviews, participant observation, and photo and video recordings from 2017 to 2023. First, I will present how asin tibuok is created. Second, I will show how potters of Bohol manufacture the salt-making pot needed to cook and process the salt. Third, I will demonstrate that the number of salt makers is directly proportional to the number of potters creating salt-making pots. Fourth, I will discuss how the Philippines’ national and local governments and the Filipinos saved traditional salt and pottery making in Alburquerque. Finally, I will identify the unintended adverse effects of asin tibuok and salt pot making on the ceramic tradition of Alburquerque, Bohol.
Tracing Traditions: The Resilience and Ecological Wisdom of the Birhor Tribe in India
Sukanya Guha Niyogi, Dept of Anthropology, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
A living tradition of a hunting-gathering civilisation in a world that is fast modernising is the Birhor tribe of India, which primarily resides in forest area of Jharkhand and the neighbouring states where there is also significant evidence of prehistoric settlement. By relating modern actions to archaeological interpretations of ancient societies, ethnoarchaeology offers a distinctive perspective for analysing their cultural practices. The subsistence methods, tool-making methods, settlement patterns, and ecological understanding of the Birhor tribe are examined in this study, along with comparisons to prehistoric hunting-gathering societies. The study is qualitative in nature incorporating case studies and semi structured interviews for collecting data. The Birhor’s traditional way of life is centred on small-scale hunting, foraging in the forest, and making ropes out of natural fibres. This skill not only helps them make ends meet financially, but it also shows how well they understand their surroundings. They provide important insights into the survival mechanisms and behaviours of early humans through their semi-nomadic lifestyle and usage of portable, transient habitats. However, deforestation, industrial growth, and socioeconomic marginalisation pose serious risks to the Birhor, causing their traditional customs to gradually erode.
Cobbling More Things Together: Further Actualistic Studies on Exploiting Fluvially-modified Raw Material Clasts
Akash Srinivas, Centre for Interdisciplinary Archaeological Research, Ashoka University, Sonipat, India
Pebbles, cobbles and boulders were critical raw material sources for stone tool-making populations worldwide. These raw material clasts were utilised for various purposes – as raw material sources, ad-hoc tools, active and passive percussors, and in a range of subsistence strategies. In cases where they were modified into other tool typologies, a wide range of stone-tool knapping strategies and techniques were employed. In many instances, these raw material clasts, rounded due to the nature of water action and erosion, did not present readily available surfaces for easy exploitation by these stone tool makers. Despite these limitations, such raw material clasts were modified and widely exploited. This paper presents a series of actualistic studies on such fluvially-modified clasts to understand the nature of their exploitation by ancient hominin groups and populations. These studies tackle the questions of raw material clast modification, the effectiveness and ease of various flaking techniques (direct percussion, bipolar-on-anvil percussion, thrown percussion and block-on-block percussion) in exploiting such raw material clasts, and the nature of the technological waste, as well as other technological features and traces that were generated on the resulting lithic products during such exploitation strategies.
Reconstructing Ancient Agricultural Practices: Bridging Past and Present through Archaeological Perspectives
Manish Kumar Vaishnav, Kalyan PG College, Bhilai Nagar, Hemchand Yadav University, India
Reconstructing ancient agricultural practices provides critical insights into sustainable farming methods employed by early civilisations. This study investigates ancient crop remains to understand how traditional agricultural systems adapted to diverse climatic and ecological conditions. Secondary data sources such as research articles, theses, Man and Environment, and Indian Archaeology: A Review (IAR) were analysed to identify indigenous crops and their ecological significance. The focus is on resilient crops from Central India, highlighting their drought tolerance, nutrient efficiency, and carbon sequestration potential. These traits underscore the importance of ancient crops in addressing modern agricultural challenges, including climate change, soil degradation, and biodiversity loss. The research emphasises the role of traditional knowledge systems in fostering ecological sustainability and ensuring food security. Insights gained from ancient agricultural practices can guide the development of sustainable and resilient agroecosystems. The findings advocate for the integration of ancient agricultural wisdom with modern practices to preserve endangered crop varieties and their cultural heritage. This interdisciplinary approach contributes to biodiversity conservation, ecological resilience, and sustainable development. Bridging past and present agricultural practices offers innovative solutions to contemporary environmental and agricultural challenges.
An Experimental Investigation on the Handstones in the Lower Yangtze River Region During the Neolithic Age
Shuang Wu, Liping Xue and Hong Chen, School of Art and Archaeology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
Grinding stones, as specialised lithic tools for grinding and polishing, are characterised by diverse forms and functions, addressing a wide range of production tasks. While research on grinding stones has traditionally focused on grinding slabs and pestles for cereals or pigments, other forms, such as handstones from the Neolithic sites of the Lower Yangtze River region in China, remain underexplored. These hand-held grinding stones played a significant yet often overlooked role in various production activities, including the processing of stone, bone, wood, and pottery—key materials for tools and construction in Neolithic societies.
However, existing studies lack detailed analysis of grinding-related activities, particularly in bone tools and pottery production, leaving significant gaps in understanding the chaîne opératoire of these materials. The poor preservation of wood further challenges research on woodworking practices. Grinding stones used for shaping and polishing wood provide indirect but critical evidence for reconstructing these activities.
This study combines experimental archaeology and use-wear analysis to investigate grinding activities on wood, pottery, and bone of the Neolithic Lower Yangtze River region. By establishing a use-wear reference dataset for handstones and highlighting underrepresented processing behaviours, this research aims to deepen our understanding of production systems and lifeways in Neolithic societies.
Memorial Stone Erection Practices Among the Kokana Adivasis of Nandurbar District, Maharashtra, India
Sarla (Rashmi) Bhirud, independent researcher
The memorial stone tradition of the Konkan tribals in Nandurbar district, Maharashtra, India, provides valuable insights into Indigenous funerary practices and ancestral worship. The Konkani Bhils, who migrated from the coastal Konkan region to the Satpuda and Sahyadri mountain ranges, continue to preserve this tradition in villages like Khandbara. This study employs ethnographic observation and documentation to analyse the practice, comparing it with similar traditions such as Virgal memorial stones erected for warriors who sacrificed their lives for social causes and the Naga tradition of stone erection as village protection deities.
Memorial stones in the Konkan tribal tradition are placed atop graves, often engraved with the names of the deceased and their causes of death. Some are accompanied by wooden poles or cloth wrappings, symbolising protection for the soul and ensuring continuity beyond death. Unlike other traditions that primarily commemorate warriors or protectors, this practice uniquely acknowledges even common individuals, reinforcing a collective ancestral memory.
By situating this funerary tradition within a broader archaeological and cultural framework, this paper examines its role in preserving identity, material culture, and regional history. Comparative analysis with similar traditions across India underscores the significance of memorial stones in shaping social and religious narratives in Indigenous communities.
Charcoal Morphology and Chemistry: A Comprehensive Database for Understanding Fire-Driven Ecosystem Changes in Southern India
Nithin Kumar, National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru, India; University of Trans-Disciplinary Health Sciences and Technology, Bengaluru
Prabhakaran Ramya Bala, National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru, India
Raman Sukumar, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India
Fire has been an important force shaping terrestrial ecosystems and influencing human evolution. Humans have used fire extensively throughout history to clear land, facilitate travel, support agriculture, hunt, and regenerate vegetation for food and livestock. A key remnant of these activities is charcoal. Charcoal is widely used as an archaeological proxy, offering insights into past land use, deforestation, and fire regimes. Despite its global significance, charcoal studies from southern India are limited. This study aims to fill that gap by developing a database of the morphological and chemical properties of charcoal produced from different plant species at varying fire temperatures. The research will focus on the dominant woody and herbaceous species in the tropical deciduous forests (India’s most fire-prone forest type) of the Nilgiri region. Despite the identification of fifteen Indigenous communities in this region, little is known about their fire-use practices. Using this database, we aim to reconstruct the fire temperatures and vegetation burned by humans. These findings will provide critical data for understanding human-fire-vegetation interactions and reconstructing palaeofire regimes. The study will also contribute to global charcoal calibration efforts, filling key gaps in our knowledge of how fire has shaped human-dominated ecosystems over time.
From the Mythical Backwaters to the Historical Bronze Age: Engaging with Alternate Knowledge Systems through Experimental Archaeology
Noora Jabir, New York University Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Among the sleek, modern structures of New York University Abu Dhabi stand two boats—one small, one large—constructed entirely with techniques and materials from over three thousand years ago. These boats, part of the Ancient Boat Lab, serve as more than just artefacts; they represent a radical mode of historical inquiry: experimental archaeology. However, their presence also raises deeper questions about the nature of knowledge production in the Arabian Peninsula. What does it mean for an American university to reconstruct the past in a region long studied through Eurocentric frameworks? Does the lab merely impose Western epistemologies on the Middle East, or does it adapt and incorporate local systems of knowledge and labour? Through ethnographic observations of the lab’s work, this paper highlights how the interplay between Western-trained archaeologists and South Asian shipwrights challenges simplistic narratives of epistemic imperialism. By situating the Ancient Boat Lab within broader debates on knowledge production, imperial legacies, and Gulf heritage, it argues that the lab is neither fully universal nor wholly parochial. Instead, it is a dynamic space where multiple epistemologies converge, producing new forms of history that transcend the binaries of West and non-West, citizen and migrant, national and transnational.
Investigating the Technology of Shaping Nephrite: Experimental Archaeology and the Traditional Carving of Pounamu in Aotearoa New Zealand
Anne-Claire Mauger, University of Otago/Ōtākou Whakaihu Waka, New Zealand
Globally, the initial shaping of large artefacts such as adzes has been identified as a result of knapping. In the case of tough rocks, however, percussion techniques appear inadequate, and it is likely that the carvers implemented other technical processes to work them.
Pounamu (nephrite) is a rock with high tenacity, that remains for Māori the most significant taonga (treasure) for culture, tradition, and spirituality. Carvers have inherited traditional knowledge of working pounamu, some aspects of which were recorded by ethnographic accounts in the 19th century. It is unknown if these lithic traditions reflect practices from the distant past.
This paper focuses upon the study of macroscopic manufacturing traces present on artefacts within museum collections, with reference to ethnographic information and discussion with carvers. An attempt to replicate these traces led to the creation of an experimental reference collection, and the demonstration of the past manufacture of pounamu. In particular, the results of this experimental approach clarify the richness of the pounamu work through time. It also offers a data set that can be explored by carvers and archaeologists who investigate the technical processes implemented in shaping technology.
Culinary Chronicles: Tracing the Early History of Plants and Animals in Southeast Asia from Harvest to Table
Michelle S. Eusebio, School of Archaeology, University of the Philippines-Diliman, Philippines
Fredeliza Z. Campos, School of Humanities (Archaeology), Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, The University of Sydney, Australia
Ma. Jasminda Liza R. Ceron, Dept of Social Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines-Manila, Philippines
Michael James B. Herrera, School of Archaeology, University of the Philippines-Diliman, Philippines
To gain a comprehensive account of the early history of plants and animals in Southeast Asia, it is crucial to extend investigations from their origins, dispersal, and acquisition to the roles they play in foodways as well as other quotidian and ritualistic activities. This endeavour examines the role of biomolecular remains, experimental archaeology, ethnoarchaeology, and other scientific studies involving contemporary materials in tracking and evaluating food and foodways. To build a modern comparative reference collection for the region and support research on ancient culinary practices in Southeast Asia, experimental cooking with several key regional food sources was conducted on earthenware cooking pots. This paper presents the results of the organic residue analysis conducted on these experimental cooking pots, explores their archaeological implications, and outlines plans for further work.
Breaking Bad: Evaluating the Role of Skill in Experimental Levallois Reduction of Vindhyan Rocks from Central India
Yezad Pardiwalla, Dept of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Mohali India
Aditi Majoe, Faculty of Health, University of Waterloo, Waterloo Canada
Bruce Bradley, College of Humanities (Emeritus Professor), University of Exeter, Exeter United Kingdom
Levallois lithic reduction is considered a complex process employed to achieve a desired production goal. Often associated with certain types and qualities of raw material, definitions of Levallois continue to widen, incorporating data from the geographic and temporal expansion in research. In central India, dominated by unmetamorphosed varieties of Vindhyan rocks, lithic artefacts likely belonging to the Early and Middle Palaeolithic abound. However, the paucity of use in this region of prepared-core knapping methods, including ‘classic’ Levallois, is palpable. Experimental replication of the preferential Levallois sequence was undertaken by two knappers, a novice (69 clasts) and an expert (13 clasts), to understand the challenges posed by the local raw materials in meeting well defined objectives. Differences in skill do emerge for many of the tested variables, including Reduction intensity, Reduction stage reached, Reason for abandonment, Investment in each stage and Striking accuracy. Nevertheless, challenges in successfully reducing Vindhyan raw materials faced by both knappers sheds light on one of the most probable reasons for the low profile of Levallois in this part of the subcontinent. Without resorting to deterministic correlations, this study highlights the variability one can expect in lithic technology based on the diversity of locally available resources.
The Indigenous Smithy of Karmakars in Birbhum Region of West Bengal, India
Oishi Roy and Parth R. Chauhan, Palaeo Arch Lab, Dept of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education & Research, Mohali, India
The Early Iron Age site in Vidarbha, Naikund [(21° 21̍ 58.23̎ N 79° 11̍ 36.66̎ E), located 42 kms away from Nagpur] is a megalithic habitation-burial site that has brought to light the earliest known furnace and remnants of tuyeres, slag, cinders and finished artefacts. This finding helped the excavator to define the demarcated area as an area where specialised labour was performed, which is iron smelting and smithy. However, in eastern India there is a dearth of information about the Indigenous tradition of iron smelting and smithy. Therefore, it was deemed necessary to situate the development of iron technology in Eastern India within the Indian sub-continent, as this will lead to a holistic understanding of the development of iron in South Asia as a whole. This study is an experimental documentation of the present day non – industrial iron smithy traditions practiced in Birbhum District, West Bengal by the Karmakar tribe. The study in this region will provide a holistic view about Indigenous ferrous technology. One reason for the urgency is that the traditional methods of metallurgy and associated cultures are disappearing rapidly (due to social strata, mechanism and globalisation) and hence need urgent scientific attention.
The Perception of Terracotta Tiger by Human: A Symbolic Interaction in Ethnoarchaeology
Ruma Mukherjee, Dept of Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology, Visva Bharati, Santiniketan, India
The analogies of modern-day yet practicing traditional cultures provide a vital methodology for understanding past relationship between human society and the animal world. Since the beginning of civilisation, humans have left evidence of their interactions with tigers, notably through depictions of motifs in terracotta. Though only a few of these have been discovered at various archaeological sites in Eastern India, they reflect the popular life and mindset of society by offering valuable insights into human-tiger communication. The symbolic meaning does not solely reside in the tigers or the humans; rather, it exists in the moment of interaction between the two. To investigate and explore the symbolic value in perception and conversation, a detailed ethnographic survey was conducted among the inhabitants of the Rarh region of West Bengal, India. The survey collected ethnographic details from terracotta tiger-producing centres, focusing on various aspects such as the manufacturing processes, distribution mechanisms over the landscape, the cultural values associated with specific forms, ritual disposal practices, and information about the makers and users of the artefacts, along with a collection of various folk stories. The terracotta tiger communicates underlying beliefs and values, which are shaped by the symbolic meanings derived from its forms and associations in various contexts of usage.
Archaeological and Ethnographic Studies in the Indigenous Pottery Community of Chipihuayco, Southern Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia
Florencia Avila, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET). Centro de Ciencias Naturales, Ambientales y Antropológicas (CCNAA), Universidad Maimónides. Buenos Aires, Argentina
The middle basin of the San Juan del Oro River (which spans the border between the Valleys of southern Bolivia and the Puna of Argentina) was home to populations known ethnohistorically as Chichas between the 11th and 16th centuries. Pottery, of excellent workmanship and complex designs, was their main diacritic in archaeological studies. One of the largest settlements is located in the Quebrada del Río Talina, subsidiary to San Juan del Oro (Modesto Omiste Province, Bolivia), where, at the foot of the river, Chipihuayco, one of the thirteen pottery-making communities along the Quebrada, is located. Focusing on ethnographic work carried out in the last ten years in this community, I wonder what is behind the finished pieces that are the only ones we can find archaeologically. I have been able to observe that behind the production process there is a great universe of objects that refer to different places and histories, influencing, silently or not, the success or failure of the ceramic piece. I believe that the agency that the pots possess is constructed under a constellation of practices, discourses, performances and objects that are inseparable from the final product.
Sticking Together: An Experimental Study on Babul Tree Resin-Based Adhesives and Microlithic Composite Tool Production
Prabakar Paul Y, Research Scholar at Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER-Mohali), India
Traditionally, pine and birch resins have been the most commonly used adhesives in experimental reconstructions of microlithic composite tools. These resins were abundantly available in high-altitude temperate regions, particularly in Eurasia and North America. In areas where they were readily available, people used freshly produced resin from trees to make adhesives. In regions where they were scarce, resin chunks might have been collected and transported, or substituted with resins from locally available trees. In India, Babul trees (Acacia nilotica) are widely distributed throughout the Indian subcontinent, found in both forest areas and agricultural lands. The tree is highly valued for its hard, durable wood, gum arabic, and various traditional medicinal properties. In this experiment, hardened Babul tree resin locally sourced from tribal shops were utilised to create a composite adhesive comprising resin, beeswax, and charcoal. The produced adhesive was used to bind microlithic insets to handles (wood or bone), fabricating various forms of composite tools. These tools were subjected to multiple functions to assess their durability, functional behaviour, strength, workability, and efficiency.
Technological Traces: A Preliminary Experimental Study to Distinguish Blade Production Methods
Jatin Ahuja and Shashi B. Mehra, The Maharaja SayajiRao University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
The study of blade technology represents a crucial aspect of Palaeolithic archaeology as it marks a significant advancement in prehistoric lithic production strategies. During the Late/Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods, blades emerged as predominant blank forms across vast regions of Europe and Asia. Their widespread adoption is attributed to their efficiency in raw material management, functional versatility, and enhanced tool-making potential. This experimental research systematically examines the morphological and attribute-based distinctions between blades and flake-blades produced through different knapping techniques.
A structured experimental flintknapping protocol was implemented using chert as raw material, and the resultant debitage was systematically documented and analysed. Findings indicate that Hard Hammer Direct Percussion generates blades exhibit distinct dorsal scarring, sturdier platforms, and increased thickness, and high amount of ring cracks, whereas Soft Hammer Indirect Percussion produces more elongated, uniform blades with finer platforms with less amount of ring cracks. By integrating comparative and quantitative analyses, these preliminary results indicates how differential knapping techniques influences fracture mechanics, thereby shaping tool production strategies. These findings contribute to a broader understanding of blade technology and provide critical insights into the identification and interpretation of prehistoric knapping techniques within archaeological assemblages.
“How Did They Make This? They Surely Didn’t Have Anything that Sophisticated.” The Role of Experimental Archaeology in Archaeological Research and Public Education
Irini (Renee) Malliaros, Director & Chief Archaeologist, I AM Archaeology: Habitat & Heritage, Australia
Nicola Speden, Experimental Archaeology, University College Dublin, Ireland
Alex Barnes, President, The Revolting Peasants, Living History and Reenactment Group
Peoples of the past are often viewed today as limited in their intellect, abilities and resourcefulness. While the archaeological/archival records provide some information, they are often incomplete and rarely reach the public. This paper demonstrates how practitioners address both issues by combining archaeological research, experimental archaeology, and community education/outreach.
Historical reenactment and living history serve as a bridge between theory and practice, refining our understanding of the past through hands-on experimentation. Practitioners undertake activities using modern day analogues to build a better understanding of how objects were made, used and discarded historically. Drawing on available sources, they make/use items and structures to help determine the labour, materials, and skills required, and show how objects wear down over time in the context of daily life; and test historical cooking materials/methods informing how food was processed, stored, and consumed.
This experimental approach can reveal challenges, techniques, and efficiencies that might not otherwise be evident providing insights into site formation processes, the archaeological record, and the social and practical aspects of past lifeways, which are often hard to interpret from artefacts alone. By recreating history in this tangible way, practitioners encourage interest and make archaeology more accessible to the public.
Tracing Craft Traditions: Ethnoarchaeological Perspectives on Terracotta Bead-Making in Eastern India
Debajit Ghosh, Dept of Ancient Indian History Culture and Archaeology, Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan, India
The present paper examines the dynamics of terracotta bead-making craft from an ethnoarchaeological perspective to address key inquiries emerging from their archaeological context. Given the substantial recovery of terracotta beads in Eastern India from the Neolithic period onward, this study provides a detailed ethnographic account of contemporary terracotta bead-making practices to identify patterns in their production and usage over time. Ethnographic documentation was conducted across eight locations in West Bengal and Jharkhand – Adityapur, Ballavpur Danga, Goalpara, Makarampur, Uttar Narayanpur, Bishnupur, Bundu, and Nonihat through photographic and descriptive recordings of different manufacturing stages along with interviews of artisans using a combination of open and close-ended questionnaires; and direct and indirect observations. The findings illustrate a comprehensive account of this craft revealing variations in raw material acquisition processes, use of implements, firing techniques, formation of beaded products and their subsequent trading, and types of manufacturing units. These preliminary observations contribute to the broader understanding of terracotta bead manufacturing. Integrating ethnographic insights with archaeological interpretations with an emphasis on the theory of non-historical analogy, the study proposes a preliminary framework for systematically analysing and interpreting terracotta beads in archaeological contexts fostering a more holistic understanding of their role in past societies.