Format: Paper presentations with discussion
Convenors:
Danielle Wilkinson, President, Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, president@aima-underwater.org.au
Dr John McCarthy, Archaeology, Flinders University, Australia, john.mccarthy@flinders.edu.au
Dr Natali Pearson, University of Sydney, Australia, Natali.Pearson@sydney.edu.au
This panel, sponsored by the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology (AIMA), invites scholars, industry professionals, and avocational archaeologists to dive into the diverse and dynamic field of maritime archaeology.
We welcome papers that consider a broad spectrum of topics across maritime archaeology in oceanic and riverine contexts, including shipwrecks and other technologies, maritime cultural landscapes, artefacts and cultural resource management, the impact of modern developments such as wind farms and offshore structures, coastal communities, trade and trading networks, ritual and seafaring, women at sea, animals and their maritime significance, colonialism and its legacies, and more. Papers may focus on research methodologies, case studies, or theoretical developments in the field.
Convened by Danielle Wilkinson (President, AIMA), Dr John McCarthy (Flinders University), and Dr Natali Pearson (University of Sydney), this hybrid session welcomes contributions from around the globe, focusing on any geographic area. We particularly welcome student participation.
Join us for an engaging and insightful discussion that bridges the gap between scholarly research, industry practices, and community involvement in maritime archaeology.
Papers:
Buoyed by Community
Sasha Joura, Archaeology, Flinders University, Australia
This paper will outline the community archaeology approach used to gather data on the maritime archaeology of Stewart Island/Rakiura, New Zealand. The Master’s thesis project employed a community archaeology approach through crowdsourcing to enhance understanding of maritime archaeology. While this method has been primarily applied to Indigenous communities and terrestrial sites in Australasia, its use in maritime contexts on this remote island is novel. Local community members were recognised as experts and interviewed to document their knowledge of intertidal and submerged sites from the historical period. Given the island’s infrequent visitation by archaeological professionals, local knowledge was acknowledged as an invaluable resource. The research has continued, with a return to the island to share findings with the community, and ground truthing of the sites identified by residents. This model may serve as a valuable framework for similar studies in other remote, inhabited locations, emphasising the importance of integrating community expertise into maritime archaeology.
Above Board: is Community Archaeology the Life-raft Maritime Archaeology Needs?
Karyn Moshe, University of Cape Town, South Africa
For decades, shipwreck sites were left unmonitored and unprotected, and an immeasurable number of archaeological resources—along with their potential for revealing information about the world’s maritime history—were lost. Around the mid-1900s, maritime archaeology entered the global academic mainstream and practitioners developed sophisticated methodologies and technologies to excavate underwater sites as thoroughly and efficiently as terrestrial ones. Despite these advances, maritime sites remain extremely fragile. The decay of historical maritime resources can be mitigated, however, through the inclusion of community archaeology techniques. Community archaeology is not just an ethical issue. Collaboration between archaeologists and communities is mutually beneficial: communities are socially and economically empowered while researchers gain a nuanced and contextualised interpretation of artefacts and sites. The involvement of the public creates continuity of projects, and the passing on of skills relating to artefact collection and heritage management ensures that valuable material is not lost. Equally important is the involvement of communities in research which is directly relevant to them. This is particularly pertinent to maritime archaeology—which is colonial by nature—as analyses often exclude local narratives. The result is a production of insufficient, one-dimensional interpretations which can be easily avoided through alterations to traditional archaeological methodologies.
The Value of a Community Approach to Maritime Archaeology in the Federated States of Micronesia
William F. Jeffery, Associate Professor, University of Guam
In this presentation I explore the meanings that can be gained in investigating and conducting community maritime archaeology in Chuuk Lagoon and in Yap. In both regions, I employ a socially inclusive approach in investigating two different types of cultural heritage, being WWII sites in Chuuk, and traditional Indigenous fish weirs in Yap. The studies facilitated an appreciation of the diverse range of meanings inherent in these important cultural landscapes and seascapes.
Through contrasting types of heritage in Oceania, the approach appears to be a broad relevant and applicable methodology. The research revealed concepts about submerged WWII sites having value, meaning and relevance for contemporary societies, something that is often overlooked or marginalised.
Regarding the traditional Indigenous fish weirs in Yap, while the focus of the study could have just centred on the fabric, equal attention was given to the associated cultural practices and what is revealed about Traditional Ecological Knowledge, and the value of this important knowledge in today’s world.
Both examples illustrate the need for more inclusion—a community approach to maritime archaeology and heritage management—in providing a comprehensive understanding of heritage value, and what we need to pass onto the next generations.
The Maritime Contacts of ‘Pattanam’: Locating the Ancient Remains in Kerala, India
Saravannan R., Research Dept of History, Pocker Sahib Memorial Orphanage College, University of Calicut, Kerala, India
The landscape of Pattanam archaeological site paved the way for the growth of maritime contacts with foreigners. There are many studies of the site, as well as various aspects of ancient port towns, but these are mainly focused on factual narration and theoretical interpretation. Pepper was the important exported item from here because this region was the only source for pepper production on the west coast of India. This paper is attempting to analyse the available literary references to Pattanam port town in Kerala. It is a preliminary investigation of an early gistoric urban centre from the available literary evidence and excavations reports. There were a number of ancient port towns mentioned in classical Greek and Sangam literatures, such as Naura, Tyndis, Nelcynda, Bacare and Muziris. These were major sites in Kerala, although it has not been possible to locate these sites on the ground so far.
The Chola Kingdom and its Impact on Maritime Archaeology
Sumit Kumar Pandey, Kongunadu College of Engineering and Technology, India
The Chola Kingdom, a prominent South Indian dynasty (300 BCE – 1279 CE), had a profound impact on maritime archaeology through its advanced naval capabilities and extensive trade networks. Some of their achievements include:
Strategic Ports: The Cholas utilised ports like Nagapattinam and Kaveripattinam as hubs for trade with Southeast Asia, China the Middle East.
Naval Expeditions: Under rulers like Rajendra Chola I, the navy expanded to enforce trade dominance and establish settlements in regions like Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand.
Shipbuilding: Their ships were technologically advanced, enabling long-distance voyages.
Impact on Maritime Archaeology: Cultural Exchange: Tamil inscriptions in Sumatra and architectural influences in temples like Angkor Wat and Prambanan, highlight the spread of Indian culture, religion and art.
Artefacts: Discoveries of Chola coins and merchant guild records in Southeast Asia underscore their extensive trade networks.
Geoarchaeological studies: Research at ancient ports like Kaveripattinam reveals insights into maritime activities and environmental events during the Chola period. The Chola dynasty’s maritime legacy shaped regional trade systems, cultural diffusion, and architectural styles across Asia, leaving an enduring mark on history and archaeology.
Maritime Cultural Landscape of the East Coast: Insight from the Archaeological Investigations of Early Historic Port Site of Palur
Dr Sunil Kumar Patnaik, Odishan Institute of Maritime & South East Asian Studies, Odisha, India
Palur, now known as Paloor village (Long. 85°11′ and Lat. 19°27′), is situated near the mouth of Ganjam in the Chhatrapur subdivision of Ganjam district, Odisha, India. It was a prominent port and commercial centre on the east coast of India, mentioned by Ptolemy in the second century CE. The archaeological site of Palur is located along the shore of Chilika Lake and spans a radius of approximately 10 kilometres, where several early historic habitation mounds have been documented.
An intensive archaeological investigation, including excavations in an extensive area (Arunpur), was undertaken by the author during the 2022–2024 field sessions. This research revealed a cultural sequence spanning from the pre-Mauryan period to the 3rd–4th century CE. Numerous artefacts were uncovered, including exotic pottery, potsherds with graffiti marks, precious and semi-precious beads, glass and shell bangles, inscriptions, and a stone stupa, all of which date from the 7th–6th century BCE to the 3rd–4th century CE. These findings establish Palur as a significant port in maritime Asia.
The landscape is dotted with several early historic urban centres, such as Jaugada (Samapa), Lathi, and Talpada, further reinforcing its role in the development of maritime trade and hinterland urbanisation. This paper aims to present recent research conducted in and around the ancient port site of Palur on the east coast.
Methodology for the Reconstruction of Historical Maritime Structures and Assess their Functional Role over Time: The Case Study of Aegina Ancient Harbour (Greece)
Mauro Frontini, University of Cantabria (UC-IHCantabria), Spain; Aix-Marseille Université (AMU-CEREGE), France
Javier López Lara, University of Cantabria (UC-IHCantabria), Spain
Laro G. Canoura, IHCantabria, Spain
Historical maritime structures are nowadays preserved in the underwater and coastal archaeological sites, forming an essential part of cultural heritage. Understanding their original function, evolution, and structural degradation is fundamental to reconstructing past societies and their relationship with the coastal environment. This study presents a comprehensive and reliable methodology that integrates archaeology and modern coastal engineering techniques by means of the use of hydrodynamic laboratory testing, numerical modelling, and archaeological analysis to reconstruct historical coastal structures and assess their functional role over time and within the broader harbour system. This methodology is based on a transdisciplinary framework, and its effectiveness has been demonstrated at the underwater and coastal archaeological site of Aegina, Saronic Gulf, Greece, dating from the 5th to 3rd centuries BC, now submerged or partially submerged. The application of this approach has enabled the complete reconstruction of the Rubble Conical Structures (RCS)—built over 2,500 years ago—while also mapping their dynamic functionalities and degradation processes over time. By expanding current knowledge of historical maritime structures, this innovative methodology enhances our understanding of human-environment interactions within their natural and historical contexts offering new insights into the resilience and evolution of ancient coastal infrastructure.
Unearthing the Craft: Lapidary Production in Early Historic Pattanam, South India
Dr.Jaseera C.M., Kerala Council for Historical Research, Kerala, South India
Excavations at Pattanam, an archaeological site in the Periyar River delta (Ernakulam district, Kerala, South India), have established its crucial role in the Indian Ocean maritime trade network. The site has yielded a significant assemblage of stone artifacts, including beads, inlays, and cameo blanks, alongside evidence of bead manufacturing (window-chipped nodules, blocklets, rough-outs, and bead blanks) and raw material processing debris. This indicates a functioning lapidary workshop at Pattanam during the Early Historic period. This paper aims to comprehensively analyze these artifacts, substantiate the existence of this workshop, and explore how maritime trade facilitated its development, thereby providing new archaeological insights into the early history of Kerala.
Preserving Maritime Cultural Heritage in a High-priority Infrastructure Project—The Excavation, 3D Documentation and Redeposition of a Shipwreck from the 1715 Swedish Ship Barrier in the Bay of Greifswald, German Baltic Sea
Ralph Behr, General Manager, Trident Archäologie
Trident Archäologie was commissioned in 2023 to excavate and recover a shipwreck to prevent it from being impaired or even destroyed by the planned construction of a pipeline. The shipwreck is part of the 1715 Swedish ship barrier, which was intended to impede access to the Bay of Greifswald and protect the town of Stralsund from an approaching Danish fleet.
We conducted a campaign over several weeks to fully excavate, document and recover the ship. Excavation phases and findings were photogrammetrically recorded before the hull was dismantled underwater into its individual parts and all timbers were recovered. While stored in temporary water basins, all elements were examined, recorded and documented in 3D using structured light scanners and further annotated in Rhino.
The result is a digital three-dimensional image of the entire shipwreck as well as a complete timber catalogue, with each individual element annotated with a precise description of its features, any visible tool marks and the surface texture.
In the final phase of the project, the ship’s timbers were returned to the seabed in a nearby subsea depot, where they now lie well-protected deep in the sediment and will be preserved for possible future study.
Investigating the Main Members of Shipwrecks in East Asia and Southeast Asia from the 7th to 13th Centuries
Weile Li, Centre for Quantitative History, Hong Kong University
Archaeologists obtain data on shipwrecks and artefacts through underwater archaeology, which provides insights into the populations associated with these shipwrecks. Based on data collection and the establishment of a database of 102 shipwreck sites in East Asian and Southeast Asian waters from the 7th to the 13th centuries, this research combines quantitative methods with traditional Chinese archaeological typology to explore ship ownership and the national or ethnic affiliations of the crew. This research is significant for understanding the maritime and economic history of this period. This research conducts detailed analyses of major cases, including the Huaguang Jiao I shipwreck in Chinese waters, and the Belitung, Cirebon, and Pulau Buaya shipwrecks in Southeast Asian waters. Additionally, it categorises and compares artefacts from 102 shipwrecks, establishes indices, conducts statistical analysis using linear regression, and visualises the data through GIS, box plots, bar charts, and line graphs. The research also introduces the established shipwrecks database and plans to supplement data on shipwrecks after the 13th century for further research.
Post-VOC: Archaeological Investigation of Nineteenth-Century Dutch Shipwrecks in Australian Waters
James Hunter, Australian National Maritime Museum
Heather Berry, Silentworld Foundation
When people associate Dutch shipwrecks with Australia, most think of 17th- and 18th-century vessels lost on the coast of what is now Western Australia while transiting between the Netherlands and the former Dutch East Indies. The association is warranted, given wrecked Dutch vessels from Australia’s pre-colonial period have been the subject of extensive historical and archaeological inquiry. Nevertheless, by the 1850s the Dutch were again traversing Australian waters, this time aboard merchant ships carrying goods and passengers directly to and from the continent. Most of these voyages were between Sydney and Amsterdam by way of Batavia. During the 19th century, several Dutch ships were lost among the labyrinth of shoals and coral outcrops that make up the Great Barrier Reef and Australian Coral Sea Territory. Another intriguing but little-known maritime link between Australia and the Netherlands in the 1850s is the role of Dutch ships in transporting Chinese immigrants to the Victorian gold fields. One of these vessels, Koning Willem de Tweede, was lost at Robe, South Australia in 1857. This paper addresses the discovery and investigation of these wreck sites, which constitute a new avenue of historical and archaeological inquiry with which to examine Dutch maritime links to Australia.
Exploring the Depths of the San José Galleon: Research Methodologies for the Study and Protection of Shipwrecks Located in Deep-Sea in the Colombian Caribbean
Carlos Del Cairo Hurtado, Instituto Colombiano de Antropología e Historia (ICANH)
Jesús Aldana Mendoza, Dirección General Marítima (DIMAR)
Hermann León Rincón, Armada Nacional de Colombia (ARC)
Carlos Reina Martínez, Instituto Colombiano de Antropología e Historia (ICANH)
Nicolás Lizarazo Fernández, Escuela Naval de Oficiales Almirante Padilla – ENAP
Juan Sarmiento Rodríguez, Instituto Colombiano de Antropología e Historia (ICANH)
Juan Santana Mejía, Dirección General Marítima (DIMAR)
Alexandra Chadid Santamaría, Escuela Naval de Oficiales Almirante Padilla – ENAP
Maritime and underwater archaeology in Colombia has experienced an exponential growth in the last decade. In addition to studying sites located in shallow waters, since 2019 research methodologies have been developed and implemented for contexts located in deep-sea. The case of the shipwreck of the Galleon San José has been one of the most significant locally, as much has been written from the historical perspective about this famous 64-gun ship, sunk during the Battle of Barú on the night of June 8, 1708 off the coast of Cartagena de Indias (Colombian Caribbean). In this sense, the goal of this paper is to present the methodologies, methods, techniques and technologies applied to the study and protection of the Galleon San José Shipwreck, located at 600 meters depth, which had never been approached systematically from an archaeological perspective. Thus, this case study presents an interdisciplinary approach in which the Ministry of Cultures, Arts and Knowledge, the Colombian Navy (ARC), the Colombian Institute of Anthropology and History (ICANH), and the Maritime Authority (DIMAR) joined efforts for the first time to install, strengthen and deploy the necessary capacities to comprehensively manage its Underwater Cultural Heritage articulating governmental entities, academia and the local communities.
Citadels, Shipwrecks and Ceramics: Investigating the Pre-Modern Maritime Landscape of Quang Ngai, Vietnam
Ian McCann, Indo Pacific Research Centre, Murdoch University
This presentation will explore the archaeological evidence of maritime communities in pre-modern Quang Ngai and associated trading systems. Coastal citadels, ports, shipwrecks, cargoes from shipwrecks, and the maritime technologies employed in seafaring trade related to this region are investigated to uncover this silent landscape. Quang Ngai is an important river settlement area and has not received adequate attention regarding its maritime history and the history of the Cham people within this region. The intricate geological coastal landscape of Quang Ngai, shaped by millennia of environmental changes, is examined to reveal its historical connections to two key archaeological sites: the Chau Sa and Co Luy citadels. These sites face threats from a growing population and have endured centuries of adaptive reuse by local people, along with damage from invading forces.
By analysing pre-modern shipwrecks along the Quang Ngai coast, their cargo, and associated shipboard technologies, it is possible to situate these maritime artefacts within the broader historical and geographical framework of the Indo-Pacific region while uncovering the technological and cultural exchanges inherent in these artefacts, enhancing our understanding of Quang Ngai’s maritime landscape.
Remote Remembrance: Honouring the I-124 submarine War Grave through Digital Survey and Outreach
John McCarthy, Archaeology, Flinders University, Australia
David Steinberg, Heritage Branch, Dept of Lands, Planning and Environment, Northern Territory Government
Matt Carter, Major Projects Foundation, Australia
We present the survey and analysis of the I-124 submarine wreck, a Japanese minelaying submarine launched in 1926 and sunk by Australian naval forces in remote waters off Darwin Harbour in 1942. Resting at a depth of 50 metres, the wreck remains largely intact but was poorly documented due to accessibility challenges and poor visibility. In 2021, a high-resolution multibeam survey was conducted, followed by a comprehensive photogrammetric survey commissioned by the Northern Territory Government’s Heritage Branch in November 2022, when Major Projects Foundation carried out a photogrammetric survey using technical divers equipped with video and timelapse cameras mounted on dive scooters. Flinders University provided technical guidance, data processing, and 3D visualisation. The resulting datasets were processed to generate a highly detailed 3D model of the submarine’s exterior, offering an unprecedented view of its condition.
The spatial survey data enabled a range of site management strategies, highlighting analysis of design and site formation, as well as measurement of change over time. In addition, a range of outputs were produced to commemorate this important historical grave site for the benefit of the families of those lost, for the Australian and Japanese public and for archaeological research.
Sovereign Wreck Diplomacy: Defence Underwater Cultural Heritage Outside Australian Waters
Natali Pearson, Discipline of Archaeology, The University of Sydney, Australia
In March 2025, the Commonwealth of Australia introduced new policy and legislative guidelines for managing defence underwater cultural heritage outside Australian waters. Years in the making, the guidelines articulate clear governance and responsibility for sovereign wrecks in foreign waters, and designate the heritage portfolio, within the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, as lead agency. This paper analyses the new sovereign wrecks agreement with reference to Australian WWII shipwrecks located in or near the territorial waters of Indonesia (HMAS Perth (I)) and Timor-Leste (HMA ships Voyager and Armidale), and considers potential implications for their future protection and management arising from this new guidance. As it argues, the guidelines represent an important step forward for the management of Defence underwater cultural heritage, but much will still depend on effective diplomatic relationships between Australia and the coastal states in whose waters these sovereign wrecks lie.
Not Just an ‘Obstruction’: Rediscovering Australian Beaufort Bomber A9-497
Dr Fiona Earl, Northern Territory Government
The four-man crew of the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) Beaufort Bomber A9-497 began a patrol mission at 04:35 from Gould Airfield (Northern Territory of Australia) on 26 November 1944. At 05:20 the pilot ordered the crew to ‘jettison all possible equipment’, and by 06:00 the crew prepared to ditch into the sea. The story of A9-497 and its crew resurfaced in August 2023 when the Northern Territory Government Heritage Branch was notified of the discovery of an unidentified aircraft. This discovery led to a joint investigation by the Heritage Branch, RAAF History and Heritage Unit, and the Australian Hydrographic Office. This paper will detail the rescue of the RAAF aircrew, the rediscovery of A9-497, and explore the complicated nature of preserving and protecting an ‘obstruction’ under current heritage legislation.
Potential Cumulative Impacts of Deep Seabed Mining (DSM) on WWII Polluting Shipwrecks
Robert Glover, Independent Research; Contractor working with The Ocean Foundation
As global demand for essential materials such as copper and manganese surges alongside the expansion of green energy and blue economy ventures, dwindling terrestrial supplies have made the deep seabed an increasingly attractive target for extracting these highly desirable metals. Advances in offshore exploration technology now make deep-sea mining (DSM) a likely reality within the next decade, though its implications for underwater cultural heritage (UCH) remain largely unknown. In this presentation, I will explore the potential impacts of DSM on potentially polluting wrecks (PPWs) – World War II-era vessels that, laden with toxic cargoes, are beginning to leak harmful substances into the marine environment. While the exact effects of mining activities near PPWs cannot be fully predicted until operations commence, speculative hypotheses can be developed by examining DSM’s broader environmental impacts and reviewing case studies of similar phenomena affecting UCH and marine industries worldwide. Although DSM may not cause immediately noticeable changes to PPWs near mining sites, it could foster a marine environment increasingly hostile to submerged cultural assets. The resulting toxic mixture from mining activities and PPW leaks accelerated by mining may have far-reaching consequences for coastal communities and marine industries around the globe.