Format: Paper presentations with discussion
Convenors:
Maria Pastor Quiles, University of Alicante, Spain, m.pastor@ua.es
Marta Mateu Sagués, Catalan Institute for Classical Archaeology, Tarragona, Spain, mmateu@icac.cat
Henry Eduardo Torres Peceros, Ricardo Palma University, Lima, Peru, henry.torres@urp.edu.pe
Mud architecture has been and is today a central element of many human communities throughout the world. Some construction techniques that use mud as the main material are much better known than others. In this sense, the archaeological study of some of these ways of building, mainly with earth and water, is currently at a remarkably early stage.
This is the case of puddled mud units put in place humid, directly after being produced (also known as cob), often shaped as balls and blocks, as well as mud modules made by hand, left to dry, subsequently used for building purposes and that can be manufactured in varied shapes and sizes.
These two construction techniques are often unknown, and are often overlooked in many sorts of studies. In their identification, they can also be mistaken for each other. In this state of things, there is much we do not know about the history of these types of mud architecture, even though, probably, they would have been well spread throughout the human past.
This session aims to attract and gather contributions of any kind that cover one or both techniques, used in any chronological and geographical scenario, from prehistory to today. They can be archaeological, ethnoarchaeological or ethnographic examples, experimental or archaeometrical approaches, or any other sort.
The goal is bringing together, comparing and reflecting on these data and ideas to generate a much needed, diverse and up-to-date knowledge base with which to generate new research about this little-known area of archaeological inquiry.
Papers:
Use of Cob in the Construction of Kaminaljuyu, Guatemala
Luis Fernando Guerrero Baca, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Xochimilco, México
Bárbara Arroyo, Museo Popol Vuh, Universidad Francisco Marroquín, Guatemala
Kaminaljuyu is an archaeological site in the central Maya highlands, situated in the valley now occupied by modern Guatemala City. The site’s occupation began around 800 BC and continued through cycles of growth and decline until AD 1200. The ancient settlement was constructed using earthen architecture, a testament to the builders’ ingenuity in adapting to the region’s intense seismic activity and heavy rainfall.
Recent studies have highlighted the expert knowledge of local builders in working with talpetate, a consolidated soil type used both as masonry blocks and in a plastic state when crushed and mixed with water. The presence of montmorillonite and kaolinite in the soil provides remarkable consistency and adhesiveness, making it an ideal binder. This material was used to secure pumice blocks, mix with volcanic sands for plaster, and, most importantly, create cob.
This construction technique enabled for the binding of foundation cores and the shaping of complex architectural elements such as slopes, tableros (panels), cornices, staircases, jambs, balustrades, and intricately modelled clay masks. These structures would have been impossible to build without the properties of mixing talpetate with volcanic sand and carefully applying and tamping it in successive layers.
Cob vs Mud brick: Cases in Mesoamerica
Annick Jo Elvire Daneels, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
Though earthen architecture is ubiquitous in Mesoamerica, its study is still in its early stages. The use of mud brick is attested, with early conical and plano-convex handmade blocks, and later mold-made rectangular blocks, the earliest in America so far. Other types of construction techniques are little understood, and thus rarely identified and reported. Cob appears to be much more common than expected, and present alongside mud brick, both in modest settlements as in monumental urban layouts since at least 3500 years ago, with continued use into the Postclassic (500 years ago). There are two techniques of cob, one of puddled mud without evidence of balls, thus presenting a monolithic appearance sometimes reported as rammed earth; the other is layered cob (bauge litée), that is often confused with mudbrick. We will present cases of both types of cob from our excavations at the Classic period La Joya site, with a comparative analysis of other sites where cob has been recognised, to evaluate the problems of identification, as well as the spatial and chronological range of the technique in Mesoamerica.
Chullpawawa: Rediscovering a Forgotten Earthen Building Technique from the Bolivian Highlands
Irene Delaveris, Guido Willy Mamani Pillco and Alicia Alejandra Olivera Flores, Delaveris Conservaciones
While travelling through the Bolivian Highlands, earthen structures of various colours and shapes can be observed—sometimes standing alone, other times in groups. These are funerary towers built by the Aymaras, an indigenous people of pre-Hispanic origin, who practiced their spirituality by honouring their ancestors through mummification in these towers, called Chullpares or Chullpas. Since 2013, a research team has been studying these structures, documenting numerous sites and gaining a deeper understanding of this previously unknown and unique building technique. The fieldwork has been complemented with archaeometric studies and material experimentation, leading to several conservation interventions and a progressively better understanding of this extraordinary engineering. Traditionally, these structures were considered adobe. However, research revealed they were built using fresh materials, mixing soil and water with the whole plant of the endemic Andean grass Stipa ichu, creating a fabric-like texture similar to modern nonwoven materials. The structure was constructed by rolling these materials into long loaves, which were then woven together, lifting the walls from the floor upward and closing with a false vault to create the funerary chamber, where the mummified bundles would be placed. This article aims to present the reached research results to a broader international audience.
Unearthing the Secrets Hidden Behind the Mud Architecture of the Village of Tulor in San Pedro de Atacama, Chile
Ana María Barón Parra, Universidad de Chile, Chile
‘The Village of Tulor’, a 2,800-year-old archaeological site located in the Atacama Desert, Northern Chile, 7 km south of San Pedro de Atacama, was built with mud walls, pieces of ceramics, stones, branches of Cachiyuyos, with corridors that connect the constructions in a rudimentary fashion. The architecture is composed of circular constructions, with diameters ranging from 3 to 8 metres, with concave interior walls, the base thickness of which is between 30 and 40 centimetres, while the upper part ranges from 25 to 30 centimetres. On the outside, they open onto a slope that supports rows of mud. These rows of mud are similar to the manufacture of ceramics, made of ‘mud loaves’, with a lot of water, thick at the base and smaller and narrower at the top, one next to the other, from the base towards the top. This type of architecture is prior to that of Spanish adobe, since they neither include straws nor have a similar thickness or size. There are 12 conglomerates of housing constructions and animals’ corrals along 2 km from E to W, built on the banks by the San Pedro River that flows into the great Salar de Atacama.
Characterisation and Analysis of Earth Construction Techniques in the Archaeological Complex of Cajamarquilla, Central Coast of Peru
Andrea I. Gutierrez Apaza, Coordinadora del área de investigación de la Zona Arqueológica Cajamarquilla, Lima-Perú
Henry Eduardo Torres, Ricardo Palma University, Lima, Peru; Universitat Politécnica de Valencia, Spain
The Archaeological Complex of Cajamarquilla corresponds to one of the most extensive archaeological complexes in the Central Andes, made up of architectural complexes, streets and squares, with a complex urban planning.
In 2023, within the framework of the Cajamarquilla Archaeological Project, excavations were carried out in the Kroeber sector. The recording and analysis of the architecture allowed us to reconstruct the construction processes, such as the choice and modification of the land, the acquisition of raw materials, transportation, construction tasks, final finishes and the social organisation involved in the execution of the architectural project.
It was determined that earth was the main construction material, highlighting its use in the construction of walls made from clay soil moistened and possibly tamped within a formwork system. To a lesser extent, rectangular adobe walls and walls built using ‘yapana’ blocks were identified, a name used to identify the natural alluvial soil of the area, which was of great importance to the societies that inhabited Cajamarquilla. The yapana, more than a surface for use, was a resource, functioning as a quarry from which blocks were extracted to build buildings and excavated to modify the relief according to functional needs.
Techniques and Symbolic Practices of Paracas Earthen Architecture, Peru, South Coast
Aïcha Bachir Bacha, Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales (EHESS), France
This presentation addresses the essential features of the earthen architecture of one of the most representative civilisations in ancient Peru, known as Paracas (800 BCE – 50 CE). While scientific literature often highlights the use of adobe, in reality, this was not the only construction material used. In several Paracas settlements, alternative materials such as stone blocks covered with mud, blocks made from natural clay-rich sediment, and bundles of twisted or braided plant fibres reinforced with mud plaster have been identified. Additionally, other unique construction materials have been documented in the bay and on the Paracas Peninsula. The walls of their structures were built using whitewashed earth blocks and angular red porphyry stones. The mortars that consolidate them were made from ash, clay and seawater mixed with seaweed. With the aim of approaching—albeit partially—to the worldview of ancient Andean societies, we aim to explore not only the material dimensions related to these material and construction techniques but also the immaterial and symbolic dimensions of this architecture. This approach allows us to better understand the religious, political, and economic complexities embedded in this architectural tradition that, according to this research, appear to be quite intricate.
From Mud Bricks to Mud Balls and Back: Tracing the (Pre)history of these Earth Building Techniques in the Iberian Peninsula
María Pastor Quiles, University of Alicante, Spain
The problematic use of earth building terminology in archaeological contexts has influenced our understanding of the historical course of these building forms in the Iberian Peninsula during the so-called Late Prehistory and, specifically, in the ‘Metal Ages’. While this terminological problem persists, the progress of archaeological research in this traditionally neglected field of knowledge is gradually giving a different and clearer picture.
This contribution offers reflections on the development of the earth building techniques of mud brick and shaped mud units in these areas, in the time span from about 5000 to 2500 years ago. For this, it looks at recently obtained evidence of these techniques, and at the reconsideration of not so recent findings. It raises questions based on this and on the remaining gaps in current research.
Archaeological Mudbricks from the 5th to 3rd Millennium BCE from Tell Zurghul/Nigin (Dhi Qar, Iraq): Preliminary Results of Characterisation and Testing Methods from Southern Mesopotamia
Luca Volpi, Departamento de Historia Antigua, Historia Medieval y Paleografía y Diplomática, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain
Francesco Santoro de Vico, “Giuseppe Colombo” University Center for Space Studies and Activities (CISAS), University of Padova, Italy
Anna Arizzi, Departamento de Mineralogía y Petrología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, Spain
Davide Nadali, Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Antichità, Sapienza Università di Roma, Italy
Since 2015, the Italian Archaeological Expedition to Nigin (MAIN) has been conducting extensive excavations at the site of Tell Zurghul, ancient Nigin, in south-eastern Iraq. This site, which dates from the 5th to the 3rd millennium BCE, represents a significant settlement within southern Mesopotamia. The research focuses on investigating the construction techniques employed at the site through a diachronic analysis of archaeological mudbricks. Specifically, it examines mudbrick chemical-physical and mechanical resistance properties to understand their evolution over time. This approach also considers the geological context and the availability of local raw materials, thereby shedding light on processes such as clay selection, purification, and mudbrick production across millennia.
The study further explores the minero-chemical and hydro-mechanical characteristics of these mudbricks to assess their durability against weathering and other degradation factors. These findings are intended to inform strategies for the conservation of earthen structures at the site. This research forms part of the EnEAp project, a CIVIS3i-MSCA postdoctoral initiative funded by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 programme under grant agreement No. 101034324. By integrating archaeological and material science methodologies, this work contributes to a broader understanding of ancient Mesopotamian construction practices and their long-term implications for heritage preservation.
From Prehistory to Spanish Vernacular Architecture: The Limited Presence of Cob and Handmade Adobes and its Combination with Other Construction Systems
Camilla Mileto, Fernando Vegas López-Manzanares, Sergio Manzano-Fernández and Alicia Hueto-Escobar, Architecture, Heritage and Management for Sustainable Development Research Centre, Universitat Politècnica de València
Despite the widespread use of earthen construction in mainland Spain, cob remains a poorly documented technique. Its prevalence in neighbouring regions, such as France and parts of Africa, raises questions about its limited presence in Spain from past societies to the present. The growing interest in this technique, recently identified in new Spanish archaeological contexts, aligns with its scarce representation in vernacular architecture that has survived until recent years. This paper aims to analyse the continuity and geographical distribution of cob and handmade adobe construction, based on documented case studies, from its earliest archaeological evidence to its combination with other traditional techniques in more recent structures. To this end, isolated architectural findings are presented within Levantine construction typologies, including cob in the upper sections of Valencian huts, piled earth walls with varying degrees of reinforcement, or its combination with wood as infill in interstitial spaces of half-timbered walls in the northwest.